avia-su.ru

The twin-engine fighter produced by the Sukhoi Design Bureau was adopted by the USSR Air Force in 1985, although it made its first flight back in May 1977.

This aircraft can reach a maximum supersonic speed of Mach 2.35 (2500 km / h), which is more than twice the speed of sound.

The Su-27 has earned a reputation as one of the most efficient units of its time, and some models are still used in the armies of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine.

www.f-16.net

A tactical attack aircraft developed in the 1960s by General Dynamics. Designed for two crew members, the first aircraft entered service with the US Air Force in 1967, and was used for strategic bombing, reconnaissance and electronic warfare. The F-111 was able to reach Mach 2.5 (2655 km / h), or 2.5 times the speed of sound.

letsgoflying.wordpress.com

Twin-engine tactical fighter developed by McDonnell Douglas in 1967. The all-weather aircraft is designed to capture and maintain air superiority over enemy forces during air combat. The F-15 Eagle first flew in July 1972 and officially entered service with the United States Air Force in 1976.

The F-15 is capable of flying at speeds in excess of Mach 2.5 (2655 km / h) and is considered one of the most successful aircraft ever built. The F-15 Eagle is expected to be in service with the US Air Force until 2025. The fighter is now exported to a number of foreign countries, including Japan, Israel and Saudi Arabia.

airforce.ru

A large, twin-engine supersonic aircraft manufactured by the Mikoyan Design Bureau is designed to intercept foreign aircraft at high speeds. The aircraft made its maiden flight in September 1975, and entered service with the Air Force in 1982.

The MiG-31 reaches a speed of Mach 2.83 (3000 km / h) and was capable of flying at supersonic speeds even at low altitudes. The MiG-31 is still in service with the Air Forces of Russia and Kazakhstan.

XB-70 newspaceandaircraft.com

The six-engine XB-70 Valkyrie aircraft was developed by North American Aviation in the late 1950s. The aircraft was built as a prototype for a strategic bomber with nuclear bombs.

The XB-70 Valkyrie reached its design speed on October 14, 1965, when it reached Mach 3.02 (3219 km / h), 21,300 m above Edwards Air Force Base in California.

Two XB-70s were built and used on test flights from 1964 to 1969. One prototype crashed in 1966 after a mid-air collision, and another XB-70 is on display at the National Air Force Museum in Dayton, Ohio.

Bell x-2 starbuster

X-2 wikipedia.org

The rocket-powered aircraft was a joint development of Bell Aircraft Corporation, the US Air Force and the National Aeronautics Advisory Committee (NASA's predecessor) in 1945. The aircraft was built to study the aerodynamic properties during supersonic flight in the range of Mach 2 and 3.

The X-2, nicknamed Starbuster, made its maiden flight in November 1955. The following year, in September 1956, Captain Milburn at the helm was able to reach a speed of Mach 3.2 (3370 km / h) at an altitude of 19,800 m.

Shortly after reaching this maximum speed, the aircraft became uncontrollable and crashed. This tragic incident put an end to the X-2 program.

airforce.ru

The Mikoyan-Gurevich aircraft was designed to intercept enemy aircraft at supersonic speeds and collect reconnaissance data. The MiG-25 is one of the fastest military aircraft ever put into service. The MiG-25 made its first flight in 1964 and was first used by the Soviet Air Force in 1970.

The MiG-25 has an incredible top speed of Mach 3.2 (3524 km / h). The aircraft is still in service with the Russian Air Force and is also used in a number of other countries, including the Algerian Air Force and the Syrian Air Force.

wikipedia.org

A prototype aircraft developed by the Lockheed Corporation in the late 50s and early 60s. The aircraft was built to intercept enemy aircraft at Mach 3.

Testing of the YF-12 took place at Area 51, a top-secret US Air Force training ground that ufologists have credited with having an alien connection. The YF-12 made its first flight in 1963 and developed a maximum speed of Mach 3.2 (3330 km / h) at an altitude of 24,400 m.The USAF eventually canceled the program, but YF-12 still made a number of research flights for the Air Force NASA. The plane finally stopped flying in 1978.

One example of existing projects of supersonic aircraft.

Today I'll start with a short introduction 🙂.

On this site I already have flying aircraft. That is, the time has come long ago to write something and about supersonic, especially since I promised to do it :-). The other day I took up work with considerable zeal, but realized that the topic was as interesting as it was voluminous.

Recently my articles do not shine with brevity, I do not know whether this is an advantage or a disadvantage :-). And the issue on the topic “ supersonic"Threatened to become even more and it is not known how much time I would have had to" create "it :-).

So I decided to try and make a few articles. A kind of small series (about three or four), in which each component will be devoted to one or two concepts on the topic supersonic speeds... And it will be easier for me, and I will hammer my readers' heads less :-), and Yandex and Google will be more supportive (which is important, you yourself understand :-)). Well, what will come of it to judge, of course, you ..

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So, let's talk today about supersonic and supersonic aircraft... The very concept of “ supersonic"In our language (all the more to a superlative degree) flashes much more often than the term" subsonic ".

On the one hand, this is, in general, understandable. Subsonic aircraft have long become something completely commonplace in our life. A supersonic aircraft, although they have been flying in airspace for 65 years now, they still seem to be something special, interesting and deserving of increased attention.

On the other hand, this is quite fair. After all, flights to supersonic- this is, one might say, a separate area of ​​movement closed by a certain barrier. However, inexperienced people may well have a question: “And what, in fact, is so outstanding in this supersound? What difference does it make when an airplane flies at a speed of 400 km / h or 1400 km / h? Give him a more powerful engine and everything will be fine! " At the dawn of its development, aviation was in approximately this semantic position.

Speed ​​has always been the ultimate dream, and initially these aspirations were quite successfully implemented. Already in 1945, the test pilot of the firm Messerschmitt L. Hoffmann in horizontal flight on one of the world's first aircraft with jet engines, ME-262, reached a speed of 980 km / h in horizontal flight at an altitude of 7200 m.

However, in reality, everything is far from so simple. After all, the flight to supersonic differs from subsonic not only in the magnitude of the velocity and not so much in it. The difference here is qualitative.

Already at speeds of the order of 400 km / h, such a property of air as compressibility begins to gradually manifest itself. And, in principle, there is nothing unexpected here. Is gas. And all gases, as you know, unlike liquids, are compressible. Compression changes gas parameters, such as density, pressure, temperature. Because of this, different physical processes can proceed in a compressed gas in a different way than in a rarefied one.

The faster the plane flies, the more it, together with its aerodynamic surfaces, becomes like a kind of piston, in a sense, compressing the air in front of it. Exaggerated, of course, but in general it is like that :-).

With an increase in speed, the aerodynamic picture of the flow around the aircraft changes and the faster, the more :-). And on supersonic it is already qualitatively different. At the same time, new concepts of aerodynamics come to the fore, which often simply do not make any sense for low-speed aircraft.

To characterize the flight speed, it now becomes convenient and necessary to use such a parameter as the M number (Mach number, the ratio of the aircraft speed relative to the air at a given point to the speed of sound in the air flow at this point). Another type of aerodynamic drag appears and becomes perceptible (very perceptible!) wave impedance(along with the already increased conventional drag).

Such phenomena as a wave crisis (with a critical number M), supersonic barrier, shock waves and shock waves.

In addition, the controllability and stability characteristics of the aircraft deteriorate due to the rearward displacement of the point of application of aerodynamic forces.

When approaching the region of transonic speeds, the aircraft can experience strong shaking (this was more typical for the first aircraft that stormed the then mysterious line of the speed of sound), similar in its manifestations to another very unpleasant phenomenon that aviators had to face in their professional development. This phenomenon is called flutter (topic for another article :-)).

There is such an unpleasant moment as the heating of the air as a result of its sharp deceleration in front of the aircraft (the so-called kinetic heating), as well as heating as a result of viscous air friction. At the same time, the temperatures are quite high, about 300 ° C. The skin of an aircraft is heated to such temperatures during a long supersonic flight.

We will definitely talk about all the concepts and phenomena mentioned above, as well as the reasons for their occurrence in other articles in more detail. But now so, I think it is quite clear that supersonic- this is something completely different than flying at a subsonic (all the more low) speed.

In order to get along with all the newly emerging effects and phenomena at high speeds and fully correspond to its purpose, the aircraft must also change qualitatively. Now it should be supersonic aircraft, that is, an aircraft capable of flying at a speed exceeding the speed of sound in a given section of airspace.

And for him it is not enough just to increase the engine power (although this is also a very important and obligatory detail). These planes usually change their appearance. Sharp corners and edges, straight lines appear in their appearance, in contrast to the "smooth" outlines of subsonic aircraft.

Supersonic aircraft have a swept or triangular wing. A typical and one of the most famous delta wing aircraft is the remarkable MiG-21 fighter (maximum speed at an altitude of 2230 km / h, at sea level 1300 km / h).

Supersonic aircraft with a triangular wing MIG-21.

One of the swept options is an ogival wing, which has an increased lift coefficient. It has a special inflow near the fuselage, designed to form artificial spiral vortices.

MIG-21I with an ogival wing.

MIG-21I - ogival wing.

Live wing TU-144.

It is interesting that a wing of this type, later installed on the TU-144, was tested on a flying laboratory based on the same MIG-21 (MIG-21I).

The second option is supercritical wing... It has a flattened profile with a curved rear end in a certain way, which makes it possible to postpone the occurrence of a wave crisis at high speeds and can be advantageous in terms of economy for high-speed subsonic aircraft. Such a wing is used, in particular, on the SuperJet 100 aircraft.

SuperJet 100. An example of a supercritical wing. The bend of the profile is clearly visible (back)

Photos are clickable.

An important parameter for an airplane is its speed. This is the indicator that worries both aviators and dispatchers, and, above all, passengers. Ordinary people using aircraft are always interested in how fast they will fly.

Modern liners easily reach 600-800 km / h. And this is far from the limit. Airspace clearance rates can be either lower or much higher. In general, science has been able to make a huge leap forward over the century. For example, "Ilya Muromets" at the beginning of the XX century could stably hold only a little more than 100 km / h.

What parameters affect speed?

The aircraft speed depends on several basic values. These are the characteristics of the aircraft, the magnitude of its aerodynamic forces and those moments that act from the outside: air density, pressure, wind force and direction.

Physically speaking, the speed of an airplane is equal to the ratio of distance to time. Usually, average indicators are considered and small intervals are taken for the calculation - most often it is customary to measure the speed in meters per second, which is then easy to translate into kilometers per hour (multiplying by 3.6).

There are several types of speeds:

• track - an indicator of the movement of the aircraft relative to the earth's surface
• true - speed relative to the air; may coincide with the track in the absence of wind
• instrumental - an indicator determined using several pressure measurements by using special tubes

Aircraft speed classification

Experts divide existing aircraft models into the following types:

• Subsonic... The main field of civil aviation. The characteristics of the models are different, but the highest speed of a modern airliner is about 1035 km / h, which is already approaching the next type of aircraft.
• Transonic... Here acceleration is equal to the speed of sound or is as close as possible to it. For example, at an altitude of 8 thousand meters, the speed of sound is 1109 km / h / Accordingly, all aircraft capable of reaching this limit can be classified as transonic.
• Supersonic... They exceed the sound barrier and are actively used in military aviation. Fighters, attack aircraft, drones accelerate to 3-4 thousand km / h.
• Hypersonic... They are rarely used, but engineers in different countries are working on the development of new hypersonic aircraft today. The sound speed level is 5-6 times higher. The experimental American Kh-43A can accelerate to 11,200 km / h.

Passenger aircraft and their speed

Civil liners with passengers on board generate 60-80% of their resource on average. Therefore, cruising speed and maximum speed are distinguished. The technical documentation indicates two values, and the average speed is calculated by the designers, based on the maximum possible.

The main speed characteristics of the liners

• IL-62... Long-haul board, accommodates 198 passengers, normal speed - 850 km / h.
• IL-86... A very large liner, capable of carrying 314 people, 950 km / h.
• IL-96... Designed for long-distance flights and for a maximum of 300 seats on board, the rate is up to 900 km / h.
• Tu-134... Designed for short flights, up to 96 people, 850 km / h.
• Tu-154... Up to 180 passengers and an average speed of 900-930 km / h.
• Tu-204... The average is 850 km / h, the number of people is up to 214.
• Yak-40... Up to 36 passengers, the normal rate is 510 km / h, the maximum is 550.
• Boeing-747... For long distances up to 298 people, the standard during the flight is 915-917 km / h.
• Boeing-777... Also designed for long flights, but only 148 passengers and 891 km / h.
• Airbus A310... Routes of different lengths. Standard performance: 183 seats, 858 km / h.
• Airbus A320... The airbus can cover average distances at a speed of 853 km / h and with 149 passengers on board.
• Airbus A330... Designed for long voyages. Designed for 398 people. And the average pace is 925 km / h.
• Airbus A380... The world's largest passenger liner. Capacity - 700, normal speed - 890-900 km / h with a maximum speed of 1019.

Fastest passenger ships

As you can see, the indicators of civilian ships operated today vary within the limits of 600-900 km / h. However, history has known cases of supersonic passenger airliners. The first is the famous Tu-144, produced in 1968 and capable of developing up to 2,500 km / h. It was discontinued in 1978. The second is the French-English Concorde, which flew until 2003.

The video shows a short excursion into the history of the legendary supersonic passenger aircraft. An overview of the reasons why the world has given up on ultra-high-speed civil flights.

No hypersonic airliners were invented, but work in this direction is being carried out by both Russian and foreign designers. The most famous today is the European project Zehst, which will be able to develop 5 thousand km / h. Similar domestic projects - Tu-444 and Tu-244 - are currently frozen.

Reasons for refusing supersonic speeds

• Lack of airfields... The number of lanes on which it is possible to land supersonic airliners is very limited. As a rule, these are military airfields.
• Complexity of construction... Super high-speed aircraft have a streamlined shape and strict side length restrictions. Thus, structurally, the ships are not very suitable for the dimensions of the passenger.
• Excessive fuel consumption... The cost of tickets for such flights would be very impressive, which is economically unprofitable for both consumers and carriers.
• Repair work and maintenance... Almost after every flight, it is necessary to carry out a full board service. This is a check of rivets, fuselage, etc.

Takeoff - how it happens and at what speeds

Each aircraft has individual technical characteristics, in accordance with which it is operated. The process of lifting the liner into the air is carried out in stages.

1. Engine speed gain... At approximately 800-820 rpm, the aircraft begins to move along the lane.
2. Acceleration and acceleration... The pilot controls the aircraft on the ground, reaching the required speed values, being in a stable position on three wheels.
3. Take-off and climb. To carry out the actual takeoff, it is required to accelerate the aircraft to 185 km / h and smoothly raise the nose by pulling the handle. As a result, the ship continues to move on two wheels and takes off from the ground, reaching a speed of 225 km / h.

Above are approximate figures for the Boeing-737 model. The higher the mass of the liner, the more speed it must develop on the ground. In addition, external factors also play a role during takeoff and climb. These are wind direction and strength, air flow density, humidity, runway quality and condition.

In cases where there is a strong wind against the movement of the aircraft, indicators that exceed the standard twice may be necessary. At the same time, in the opposite situation, when the wind is favorable, minimal efforts will be needed.

Plane landing

Landing an aircraft is the opposite of take-off. Accordingly, all stages are performed in reverse order: smooth descent, landing approach and straightening, holding the aircraft and touching the runway.

Fly around the Earth in a couple of hours. This is not a myth, it is a reality if you are a passenger on a super-fast plane.

Boeing X-43

The X-43A hypersonic aircraft is the fastest aircraft in the world. The drone showed fantastic results during testing, it flew at a speed of 11,230 kilometers per hour. This is about 9.6 times the speed of sound.

The X-43A was designed and built by specialists from NASA, Orbital Sciences Corporation and MicroCraft Inc. It took about ten years of research in the field of supersonic ramjet engines, which are capable of accelerating aircraft to supersonic speeds, for the record holder to be born. The project took a quarter of a billion dollars.

The fastest aircraft on the planet is not very large. Its wingspan is only one and a half meters, while its length is only 3.6 meters. The fastest aircraft was equipped with an experimental Supersonic Combustion Ramjet (SCRamjet) ramjet engine for supersonic combustion. And its main feature is that there are no rubbing parts. Well, the fuel on which the record holder flies is a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen. The creators did not allocate space for special tanks for oxygen, it is taken directly from the atmosphere. This made it possible to reduce the weight of the aircraft. As a result, as a result of the use of oxygen with hydrogen, the engine emits ordinary water vapor.

The world's fastest aircraft Boeing X-43 flies at a speed of 11,230 km / h

It is worth noting that the world's fastest aircraft was developed specifically to test the latest technology, namely a hypersonic alternative to modern turbojet engines. Scientists believe that hypersonic aircraft will be able to reach anywhere on Earth in just 3-4 hours.

Orbital Sciences Corporation X-34

The Kh-34 is also the fastest aircraft. Moreover, it can develop even greater speed than the previous one, namely 12144 kilometers per hour. However, in the list of the fastest, he is still in second place. This is because in experiments he was able to develop a speed of less than 11,230 kilometers per hour. The aircraft is accelerated with the help of the Pegasus solid-propellant rocket, which is attached to the aircraft.

We first tested this fastest aircraft in the world in the spring of 2001. And it took 7 years and $ 250 million to build and test the Hyper-X engine. The tests of the Kh-34 ended in success only in the spring of 2004. Then, during the launch over the Pacific Ocean near the island of St. Nicholas, the car accelerated to 11 thousand kilometers per hour. This plane is more than a record holder. The length of the aircraft is 17.78 meters, the wingspan is 8.85 meters, the height is already 3.5 meters. Although the aircraft flies quickly, its weight is an impressive 1270 kilograms. The maximum height it can climb is 75 kilometers.

North American X-15

The X-15 is already an experimental American rocket plane, it is equipped with rocket engines. The Kh-15 was the first and for forty years the only manned hypersonic aircraft in history to perform suborbital space flights with pilots. The main task of this aircraft is to study the conditions of flight at hypersonic speeds, as well as to study the conditions for the entry into the atmosphere of winged vehicles. It is designed to evaluate new design solutions, coatings, and psychophysical aspects of control in the upper atmosphere. The concept of the project was approved in 1954. And in flight, an unofficial altitude record was recorded, which was held from 1963 to 2004. This aircraft is capable of flying at a speed of 7274 kilometers per hour.

However, despite the impressive speed, the plane weighs quite well - more than 15 thousand kilograms. But this is taking into account the mass of the fuel. When landing, the aircraft weighs half the weight. The height to which the X-15 can rise is almost 110 kilometers. Well, the flight range is 543.4 kilometers.

SR-71 ("Blackbird")

The SR-71 is a strategic supersonic reconnaissance aircraft of the United States Air Force. And this is the fastest aircraft, moreover, the most high-flying production aircraft. It has remained that way over the past 25 years. It has a fairly compact size: length 32.76 meters, height 5.64 meters, and a wingspan of 16.95 meters. With such data, the weight of the aircraft is impressive, during takeoff it is more than 77 thousand kilograms, however, an empty aircraft weighs about 27 thousand kilograms. Well, the maximum speed with which the SR-71 is capable of flying is 3715 kilometers per hour.

MiG-25 ("The Bat")

But this is the fastest jet military aircraft on the planet. It was on it that exactly 29 world records were set. Two types of this aircraft have been designed and built: an interceptor and a reconnaissance aircraft. The aircraft is 23.82 meters long, almost 6 meters high, and has a wingspan of 13.95 for a reconnaissance aircraft and 14.015 for an interceptor. The maximum take-off weight of the aircraft is 41,200 kilograms, and upon landing, it is equal to 18,800 kilograms. The MiG-25 flies at a speed of 3395 kilometers per hour.

Fighter-interceptor MIG-25 - the fastest aircraft in Russia

MiG-31

It is a two-seater supersonic interceptor aircraft designed to fly in any weather and is a long-range aircraft. The MiG-31 is the first Soviet 4th generation combat aircraft. It is necessary to intercept and destroy targets in the air at high, medium, low and extremely low altitudes, at night and during the day, in different weather conditions, with active and passive radar jamming from the enemy, even false thermal targets. Four MiG-31 aircraft can control an airspace of 800-900 kilometers. One aircraft is 21.62 meters long, 6.5 meters high and has a wingspan of 13.45 meters. A car flies at a speed of 3 thousand kilometers per hour.

McDonnell-Douglas F-15 ("Eagle")

And this is a 4th generation all-weather American tactical fighter. He is capable of gaining air superiority. The Eagle was put into service in 1976. There are 22 aircraft modifications in total. F-15s were used in the Persian Gulf, Yugoslavia and the Middle East. The fighter has a top speed of 2650 kilometers per hour.

General Dynamics F-111 ("Aardvark" or "Pig")

The F-111 is a two-seater tactical bomber. In 1996, he was withdrawn from the US Air Force. The speed of its movement is 2645 kilometers per hour.
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"Turn on supersonic!"

Supersonic passenger aircraft - what do we know about them? At least the fact that they were created relatively long ago. But, for various reasons, they were not operated for as long, and not as often as they could. Even today, they exist only as design models.

Why is that? What is the peculiarity and "secret" of supersonic sound? Who created this technology? And also - what will be the future of supersonic aircraft in the world, and of course - in Russia? We will try to answer all these questions.

"Farewell Flight"

So, fifteen years have passed since the last three functioning supersonic passenger aircraft made their last flights, after which they were decommissioned. It was back in 2003. Then, on October 24, they all together "said goodbye to heaven." Last time they flew at low altitude, over the capital of Great Britain.

Then we landed at London Heathrow Airport. These were Concorde-class aircraft belonging to the British Airways aviation company. And with such a "farewell flight" they completed a very short history of passenger traffic, at speeds exceeding sound ...

So one could think a few years ago. But now it is already possible to say with certainty. This is the finale of only the first stage of this story. And probably - all of its bright pages are still ahead.

Today - preparation, tomorrow - flight

Today, many companies and aircraft designers are thinking about the prospects for supersonic passenger aviation. Some are making plans to revive it. Others are already preparing for this with might and main.

After all, if it could exist and function effectively several decades ago, then today - with seriously advanced technologies, it is quite possible not only to revive it, but also to solve a number of problems that forced the leading airlines to abandon such technologies.

And the prospects are too tempting. The possibility of a flight, for example, from London to Tokyo, in five hours seems very interesting. Cross the distance from Sydney to Los Angeles in six hours? And get from Paris to New York in three and a half? With passenger aircraft, which is capable of flying at a higher speed than sound can be heard, this is not at all difficult.

But, of course, before the triumphant "return" of such to airspace - scientists, engineers, designers, and many others - still have a lot of work to do. It is necessary not only to restore what once was by proposing a new model. Not at all.

The goal is to solve many problems associated with supersonic passenger aviation. Creation of aircraft that will not only demonstrate the capabilities and power of the countries that built them. But they will also be really effective. So much as to occupy a niche worthy of them in aviation.

The history of "supersonic". Part 1. What happened in the beginning ...

How did it all begin? In fact - from a simple passenger aircraft. And such is more than a century old. Its design began in the 1910s, in Europe. When craftsmen from the most developed countries of the world created the first aircraft, the main purpose of which was to transport passengers over various distances. That is, a flight with many people on board.

The first among them is the French Bleriot XXIV Limousine. It was owned by the aircraft manufacturer Bleriot Aeronautique. However, it was used mainly for the amusement of those who paid for pleasure "walks" - flights, on it. Two years after its creation, an analogue appears in Russia.

It was the S-21 Grand. It was designed on the basis of the “Russian Knight”, a heavy bomber, created by Igor Sikorsky. And the construction of this passenger aircraft was carried out by the workers of the Baltic Carriage Works.

Well, after that progress could no longer be stopped. Aviation developed rapidly. And passenger, in particular. First, there were flights between specific cities. Then the planes were able to cover distances between states. Finally, aircraft began to cross the oceans and fly from one continent to another.

Developing technologies and more and more innovations allowed aviation to travel very quickly. Much more likely than trains or ships. And there were practically no barriers for her. There was no need to change from one transport to another, not only, say, traveling to some particularly distant "end of the world".

Even when it is necessary to cross land and water at once. The planes were not stopped by anything. And this is natural, because they fly over everything - continents, oceans, countries ...

But time passed quickly, the world was changing. Of course, the aviation industry also developed. Aircraft over the next few decades, up to the 1950s, have changed so much, when compared with those that flew back in the early 1920s and 1930s, that they have already become something completely different, special.

And so, in the middle of the twentieth century, the development of the jet engine went very fast, even in comparison with the previous twenty or thirty years, rates.

A small informational digression. Or - a little physics

Advanced developments have allowed aircraft to "accelerate" to speeds greater than that with which sound travels. Of course, first of all, it was applied in military aviation. After all, we are talking, after all, about the twentieth century. Which, sadly to realize it, was a century of conflicts, two world wars, the "cold" struggle between the USSR and the USA ...

And almost every new technology created by the leading states of the world was first of all considered from the point of view of how it can be used in defense or attack.

So, airplanes could now fly at unprecedented speeds. Faster than sound. And what is its specificity?

First of all, it is obvious that this is a speed that exceeds that with which the sound is carried. But, remembering the basic laws of physics, we can say that in different conditions, it may differ. And “exceeds” is a very loose concept.

And therefore - there is a special standard. Supersonic speed is called one that exceeds the sound speed by up to five times, taking into account the fact that depending on temperature and other environmental factors, it can change.

For example - if we take the normal atmospheric pressure, at sea level, then the speed of sound will be equal to the impressive figure - 1191 km / h. That is, 331 meters are covered in a second.
But, which is especially important in the design of supersonic aircraft, as the altitude increases, the temperature decreases. This means that the speed with which the sound propagates is very significant.

So let's say, if you rise to a height of 20 thousand meters, then here it will be already 295 meters per second. But there is one more important point.

At 25 thousand meters above sea level, the temperature starts to rise, since it is no longer the lower layer of the atmosphere. And so it goes on. Rather, higher. Let's say it gets hotter at 50,000 meters. Consequently, the speed of sound there - increases even more.

I wonder how much? Rising 30 kilometers above sea level, you find yourself in a "zone" where sound travels at a speed of 318 meters per second. And at 50,000 meters, respectively - 330 m / s.

About Mach number

By the way, it is interesting that to simplify understanding of the features of flight and work in such conditions, the Mach number is used in aviation. A general description of such can be reduced to the following conclusions. It expresses the speed of sound, which takes place under a given conditions, at a specific altitude, at a given temperature and air density.

For example, the flight speed, which is equal to two Mach numbers, at an altitude of ten kilometers above the ground, under normal conditions, will be equal to 2,157 km / h. And at sea level - 2,383 km / h.

The history of "supersonic". Part 2. Overcoming barriers

By the way, for the first time, a pilot from the United States, Chuck Yeager, reached a speed of flight of more than Mach 1. This happened in 1947. Then he "accelerated" his plane, flying at an altitude of 12.2 thousand meters above the ground, to a speed of 1066 km / h. This is how the first supersonic flight took place on the ground.

Already in the 1950s, work began on the design and preparation for serial production of passenger aircraft capable of flying at a speed - faster than sound. They are led by scientists and aircraft designers from the most powerful countries in the world. And they succeed.

The same "Concorde", a model that was finally abandoned in 2003, was created in 1969. This is a joint British-French development. The symbolically chosen name - "Concorde", from French, is translated as "consent".

It was one of two existing types of supersonic passenger aircraft. Well, the creation of the second (or rather, chronologically - the first) is the merit of the aircraft designers of the USSR. The Soviet counterpart of the Concorde is called the Tu-144. It was designed in the 1960s and made its first flight on December 31, 1968. A year before the British-French model.

No other types of supersonic passenger aircraft have been implemented to this day. Both the Concorde and the Tu-144 flew thanks to turbojet engines, which were specially redesigned in order to operate at supersonic speed for a long time.

The Soviet analogue of "Concorde" was operated for a much shorter period. Already in 1977 it was abandoned. The plane flew on average, at a speed of 2,300 kilometers per hour and could carry up to 140 passengers at a time. But at the same time, the price of a ticket for such a "supersonic" flight was two, two and a half, or even three times more than for an ordinary one.

Of course, these were not in great demand among Soviet citizens. And servicing the Tu-144 was not easy and expensive. Therefore, in the USSR they were abandoned so quickly.

The Concordes lasted longer, although the flights they flew were also expensive. And the demand was also not great. But still, despite this, they continued to be exploited, both in Great Britain and in France.

If we recalculate the cost of a ticket for the Concorde in the 1970s, at today's rate, then it will be about two tens of thousands of dollars. For a one way ticket. One can understand why the demand for them was somewhat less than for flights, using aircraft that do not reach supersonic speeds.

The Concorde could take on board from 92 to 120 passengers at a time. He flew at a speed of over 2 thousand km / h and covered the distance from Paris to New York in three and a half hours.

Several decades passed in this way. Until 2003.

One of the reasons for the refusal to operate this model was the plane crash that occurred in 2000. Then, on board the crashed "Concorde" there were 113 people. They all died.

Later, an international crisis began in the field of passenger air transportation. Its cause is the terrorist attacks that took place on September 11, 2001, in the United States.

Moreover, on top of that, the warranty period for Concordes by Airbus is coming to an end. All this together made the further operation of supersonic passenger aircraft extremely unprofitable. And in 2003 all Concordes were written off one by one, both in France and in Great Britain.

Hopes

After that, there were still hopes for an early "return" of supersonic passenger aircraft. Aircraft designers talked about creating special engines, which would save fuel, despite the flight speed. We talked about improving the quality and optimization of the main avionics systems on such aircraft.

But, in 2006 and 2008, new regulations of the International Civil Aviation Organization were issued. They determined the latest (they are valid, by the way, and at the moment) standards of permissible aircraft noise during flight.

And supersonic aircraft, as you know, did not have the right to fly over populated areas, which is why. After all, they made strong noise pops (also for reasons of the physical characteristics of the flight) when they were moving at maximum speeds.

This was the reason that the "planning" of the "revival" of supersonic passenger aviation slowed down somewhat. However, in fact, after the introduction of this requirement, aircraft designers began to think about how to solve this problem. After all, she also had a place to be before, just the "ban" focused on it - the "problem of noise."

What about today?

But ten years have passed since the last "ban". And planning smoothly turned into design. To date, several companies and government organizations are engaged in the creation of supersonic passenger aircraft.

Which ones? Russian: Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (the one named after Zhukovsky), Tupolev and Sukhoi companies. Russian aircraft designers have an invaluable advantage.

Experience of Soviet designers and creators of Tu-144. However, it is better to talk about domestic developments in this area separately and in more detail, which we propose to do next.

But not only Russians are creating a new generation of supersonic passenger aircraft. It is also the European concern Airbus and the French company Dassault. Among the firms of the United States of America that are working in this direction are Boeing and of course Lockheed Martin. In the land of the rising sun, the main organization designing such an aircraft is the aerospace research agency.

And this list is by no means complete. At the same time, it is important to clarify that the overwhelming majority of professional aircraft designers working in this area are divided into two groups. Regardless of the country of origin.

Some believe that it is impossible in any way to create a "quiet" supersonic passenger aircraft at the current level of technological development of mankind.

Therefore, the only way out is to design a “just fast” airliner. He, in turn, will go to supersonic speed in those places where it is allowed. And when flying, for example, over settlements, return to subsonic.

Such "jumps", according to this group of scientists and designers, will reduce the flight time to the minimum possible, and not violate the requirements for noise effects.

Others, on the contrary, are full of determination. They believe that the cause of the noise can be dealt with now. And they made a lot of effort to prove that a supersonic airliner that flies quietly is quite possible to build in the next few years.

And some more boring physics

So, when flying at a speed of more than Mach 1.2, the airframe of the aircraft generates shock waves. They are strongest in the tail and nose areas, as well as in some other parts of the aircraft, such as on the edges of the air intakes.

What is a shock wave? This is an area where the density, pressure and temperature of the air experience sharp jumps. They appear when moving at high speeds, faster than sound.

To people who stand on the ground, despite the distance, it seems that there is an explosion. Of course, we are talking about those who are in relative proximity - under the place where the plane is flying. That is why flights of supersonic aircraft over cities were prohibited.

Representatives of the "second camp" of scientists and designers, who believe in the possibility of leveling this noise, are fighting against such shock waves.

If you go into details, the reason for this is literally a "collision" with the air at a very high speed. At the wave front, the pressure is sharply and strongly increased. At the same time, immediately after it, a drop is observed, and then a transition to a normal pressure indicator (such as it was before the "collision").

However, the classification of wave types has already been carried out and potentially optimal solutions have been found. It remains only to complete the work in this direction and make the necessary adjustments to the aircraft designs, or create those from scratch, taking into account these amendments.

In particular, NASA specialists came to the realization of the need for structural changes in order to reform the characteristics of flight in general.

Namely - to change the specifics of shock waves, as far as possible at the current technological level. This is achieved by restructuring the wave, through specific design changes. As a result, the standard wave is considered as an N-type, and the one that arises during flight, taking into account the innovations proposed by specialists, as an S-type.

And with the latter, the “explosive” effect of pressure change is significantly reduced, and people who are below, for example, in a city, if an airplane flies over it, even when they hear such an effect, then only as “distant banging of a car door”.

Form is also important

In addition, for example, Japanese aircraft designers, not so long ago, in mid-2015, created an unmanned airframe model D-SEND 2. Its shape is designed in a special way, allowing to significantly reduce the intensity and number of shock waves that occur when the aircraft flies at supersonic speed.

The effectiveness of the innovations proposed in this way by Japanese scientists was proved during the tests of D-SEND 2. They were held in Sweden, in July 2015. The course of the event was quite interesting.

The glider, which was not equipped with engines, was raised to a height of 30.5 kilometers. With a balloon. Then he was thrown down. During the fall, it “accelerated” to a speed of Mach 1.39. The length of the D-SEND 2 itself is 7.9 meters.

After the tests, the Japanese aircraft designers were able to declare with confidence - the intensity of shock waves, when flying their brainchild at a speed exceeding the speed of sound propagation, is two times less than that of the Concorde.

What are the features of D-SEND 2? First of all, its bow is not axisymmetric. The keel is shifted towards it, and at the same time, the horizontal tail unit is set as all-moving. It is also located at a negative angle to the longitudinal axis. And at the same time, the tail ends are located lower than the attachment point.

The wing, smoothly coupled with the fuselage, is made with a normal sweep, but stepped.

According to approximately the same scheme, now, as of November 2018, a passenger supersonic AS2 is being designed. The professionals from Lockheed Martin are working on it. The customer is NASA.

Also, the project of the Russian SDS / ATP is now at the stage of improving the form. It is planned that it will be created with an emphasis on reducing the intensity of shock waves.

Certification and ... one more certification

It is important to understand that some supersonic passenger aircraft projects will be implemented as early as the early 2020s. At the same time, the rules established by the International Civil Aviation Organization in 2006 and 2008 will still be in effect.

This means that if by that time there is no serious technological breakthrough, in the field of "quiet supersonic", then it is likely that aircraft will be created, which will switch to speeds higher than Mach one, only in areas where this is permitted.

And after that, when the necessary technologies do appear, in such a scenario, many new tests will have to be carried out. In order to ensure that aircraft can obtain permission to fly over populated areas. But these are only speculations about the future, today it is very difficult to say anything for sure on this score.

Price question

Another problem mentioned earlier is the high cost. Of course, today, many engines have already been created, much more economical than those that were operated twenty or thirty years ago.

In particular, those are now being designed, which can provide the aircraft with supersonic speed, but at the same time do not "eat" as much fuel as the Tu-144, or "Concorde".

How? First of all, this is the use of ceramic composite materials, which provide a decrease in temperatures, and this is especially important in hot zones of power plants.

In addition, the introduction of another, third, air circuit - in addition to the external and internal. Leveling the rigid coupling of the turbine with the fan, inside the aircraft engine, etc.

But nevertheless, even thanks to all these innovations, it cannot be said that supersonic flight, in today's realities, is economical. Therefore, in order for it to become accessible and attractive to the broad masses of the population, it is extremely important to improve the engines.

Perhaps - the actual solution will be a complete redesign of the structure - experts say.

By the way, it will also not be possible to reduce the cost by increasing the number of passengers per flight. Since the aircraft that are being designed today (meaning, of course, supersonic aircraft), are designed to transport a small number of people - from eight to forty-five.

A new engine is a solution to the problem

Of the latest innovations in this area, it should be noted an innovative jet, turbofan power plant, created this year, 2018, by GE Aviation. In October, it was introduced under the name Affinity.

This engine is planned to be installed on the aforementioned passenger model AS2. There are no significant technological "innovations" in this type of power plants. But at the same time, it combines the features of jet engines with a large and a small degree of bypass. Which makes the model very interesting for installation on a supersonic aircraft.

Among other things, the creators of the engine claim that when tested, it will prove its ergonomics. The fuel consumption of the power plant will be approximately equal to that which can be recorded for standard airliner engines currently in operation.

That is, this is a claim that the power plant of a supersonic aircraft will consume approximately the same amount of fuel as that of a conventional airliner, which is not capable of accelerating to speeds above Mach one.

How this will turn out is still difficult to explain. Since the design features of the engine, its creators do not disclose at the moment.

What could they be - Russian supersonic airliners?

Of course, today there are many specific projects for supersonic passenger aircraft. However, not everyone is close to implementation. Let's look at the most promising ones.

So - Russian aircraft manufacturers, who inherited the experience of Soviet masters, deserve special attention. As mentioned earlier, today, within the walls of TsAGI named after Zhukovsky, according to its employees, the creation of the concept of a new generation supersonic passenger aircraft has almost been completed.

In the official description of the model, provided by the press service of the institute, it is mentioned that this is a "light, administrative" aircraft, "with a low level of sonic boom." The design is carried out by specialists, employees of this institution.

Also, in the message of the TsAGI press service it is mentioned that due to the special layout of the aircraft body and a special nozzle on which the noise suppression system is installed, this model will demonstrate the latest achievements in the technological development of the Russian aircraft industry.

By the way, it is important to mention that among the most promising projects of TsAGI, in addition to the one described, is a new configuration of passenger airliners, called the "flying wing". It implements several particularly relevant enhancements. Specifically, it makes it possible to improve aerodynamics, reduce fuel consumption, etc. But for non-supersonic aircraft.

Among other things, this institute has repeatedly presented ready-made projects that have attracted the attention of air amateurs from all over the world. Let's say - one of the last - a model of a supersonic business jet capable of covering up to 7,000 kilometers without refueling and developing a speed of 1.8 thousand km / h. This one was presented at the exhibition "Gidroaviasalon-2018".

"... the design goes all over the world!"

In addition to the named Russian models, the following models are also the most promising. American AS2 (capable of speeds up to Mach 1.5). Spanish S-512 (speed limit - Mach 1.6). And also, currently in the design stage in the USA, Boom, from Boom Technologies (well, it will be able to fly at a maximum speed of Mach 2.2).

There is also the X-59, which is being created by order of NASA, Lockheed Martin. But it will be a flying science laboratory, not a passenger plane. And so far no one planned to launch this into mass production.

The plans of the Boom Technologies company are interesting. The employees of this company declare that they will try to achieve the maximum reduction in the cost of the flight on the supersonic airliners created by the company. For example, they can roughly name the price for a flight from London to New York. That's about $ 5,000.

For comparison, this is how much a ticket for a flight from the English capital to New York, on a regular or “subsonic” plane, in business class costs. That is, the price of a flight on an airliner capable of flying at a speed of more than Mach 1.2 will be approximately equal to the cost of an expensive plane ticket that could not have made the same fast flight.

However, Boom Technologies made a bet that it would not be possible to create a "quiet" supersonic passenger liner in the near future. Therefore, their Boom will fly at the maximum speed, which it is capable of developing, only over water areas. And being over land - go to a smaller one.

Despite the fact that the length of the Boom will be 52 meters, it will be able to carry up to 45 passengers at a time. According to the plans of the company designing the aircraft, the first flight of this new product should occur in 2025.

What is known today about another promising project - AS2? It will be able to carry significantly fewer people - only eight to twelve people per flight. In this case, the length of the liner will be 51.8 meters.

Above water, it is planned, will be able to fly at a speed of 1.4-1.6 Mach, and over land - 1.2. By the way, in the latter case, due to its special shape, the aircraft, in principle, will not form shock waves. For the first time, this model should take off in the summer of 2023. In October of the same year, the plane will make its first flight across the Atlantic.

This event will be timed to coincide with a memorable date - the twentieth anniversary of the last time the Concordes flew over London.

Moreover, the Spanish S-512 will soar into the sky for the first time no later than at the end of 2021. And deliveries of this model to customers will begin in 2023. The maximum speed of this aircraft is Mach 1.6. It can accommodate 22 passengers. The maximum flight range is 11.5 thousand km.

The client is the head!

As you can see, some companies are trying very hard to complete the design and start building aircraft as quickly as possible. For whom are they willing to rush so fast? Let's try to explain.

So, during 2017, for example, the volume of air passenger traffic amounted to four billion people. Moreover, 650 million of them flew long distances, having spent on the way from 3.7 to thirteen hours. Further - 72 million out of 650, moreover, flew first, or business class.

It is these 72 million people, on average, that those companies that are engaged in the creation of supersonic passenger aircraft are counting on. The logic is simple - it is possible that many of them will not mind paying a little more for a ticket, provided that the flight is about twice as fast.

But, even in spite of all the prospects, many experts reasonably believe that the active progress of supersonic aviation, created for the transport of passengers, may begin after 2025.

This opinion is confirmed by the fact that the aforementioned "flying" laboratory X-59 will first rise into the air only in 2021. Why?

Research and perspectives

The main purpose of her flights, which will take place over several years, will be the collection of information. The fact is that this aircraft must fly over various settlements at supersonic speed. Residents of these settlements have already expressed their consent to the testing.

And after the plane-laboratory completes the next “experimental flight”, people living in those settlements over which it flew, should tell about those “impressions” that they received during the time when the airliner was above their heads. And especially clearly express how the noise was perceived. Has he influenced their livelihoods, etc.

The data collected in this way will be transferred to the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States. And after their detailed analysis by specialists, it is possible that the ban on flights of supersonic airliners over populated land areas will be canceled. But in any case, this will not happen until 2025.

In the meantime, we can observe the creation of these innovative aircraft, which will soon mark the birth of a new era of supersonic passenger aviation with their flights!