Mirrors are usually made of glass, which has a reflective coating. They are used not only in everyday life, but also in production, and are an important component of many scientific tools, such as telescopes, industrial equipment, camcorders and lasers. People first saw their reflection in the puddles of water, streams, river stages, which became the first mirrors - so began to have a long history.

Mirror history of the ancient world

The earliest artificial mirrors were from polished black volcanic vitreous stone - obsidian, which was treated in the form of a circle. Some samples of such mirrors were found in Turkey. Their age is referred to 6000 BC.

In which country invented the mirror? The earliest man-made reflectors in the form of polished obsidian pieces were found in Anatolia - modern Turkey. The ancient Egyptians used polished copper for the production of mirrors, the opposite direction was decorated with an ornament. Ancient Mesopotamia Residents also made polished metal mirrors, and reflective surfaces from polished stone appeared in the central and South America about two thousand years before e. In the process of the appearance of this usual, whole civilizations took part today.

In which country? It is believed that made with a metal back with glass, they first appeared in the Lebanese Sidion in the first century of our era. The first glass mirrors were produced in the first year of our era of the Romans - from blowing glass with lead substrates. Glass reflectors were first manufactured in the third century of our era.

The invention of the method of blowing glass in the XIV century led to the discovery of convex mirrors, which further increased their popularity.

Stone Mirrors of Central America

This accessory was considered one of the most important religious artifacts in the famous culture of Central America. In which country invented the mirror? Over the ages and millennia, the culture of Central America and Mesoamers acquired specific traditions and religious rites against reflective surfaces. One of the most common beliefs, which was practiced by Maya, Aztecs and Tarasco is confidence that the mirrors serve as portals to interact with the gods and otherworldly forces.

This ancient tradition of early beliefs still considers any smooth surface of the water with a powerful tool for divination. Mirrors created in those times in mesoamer, first manufactured from a solid piece that was polished to a high degree of reflectivity. Later there were other materials and larger and sophisticated products. One of the most popular cultural samples Classic Mesoamerics - Mosaic pyrite mirrors, which were widely used in famous city Teotihuacan.

China: Bronze Mirrors

Where did the mirror invent? In which country? Answer this question is definitely difficult enough. The history of the mirror covers the last 8,000 years of modern development, but one of the most important representatives of this so-habitual accessory today were Chinese bronze reflectors, the first appearance of which is referred to by 2900 BC. e.

In which country invented the mirror? In China, the reflectors were made of metal alloys, tin mixtures and copper, called a mirror metal, which was perfectly polished and had a magnificent reflective surface, as well as from polished bronze. Reflectors made of metal alloys or precious metals were considered very valuable objects in antiquity and were only available for very rich people.

But the Egyptians quickly moved from bronze to other materials - this was polished obsidian used in 4000 BC. e., polished selenit, as well as various copper alloys. China began producing mirrors using Amalgam Mercury in another 500 of our era, but at the same time continued to improve the art of creating bronze products. They remained to use until the XVII-XIX century, when Western travelers brought modern mirrors into the country.

Mirror luxury Venice

In the medieval period, the glass mirror completely disappeared. In those days, religious denominations announced that the devil looks at the world from the opposite side of the reflective surface. Poor fashion guards had to use metal polished surfaces or replace them with special water bowls. Glass mirrors returned only in the XIII century. It was then that in Holland has a handicraft technology of manufacturing these products. Then - in Flanders and the German Nuremberg, where in 1373 the first shop on the manufacture of such mirrors was organized.

Where did the mirror invent? In which country? So immediately you can not say. With the use of existing technologies, the Wizard-glazers poured hot tin into glass baths, and then when the tin cooled, they shared it into separate pieces. John Pekam, a member described this method in 1279, but this mirror invented who - the story is unlikely to remember. Venetian masters came up with the "Flat Mirror Technology" only after three centuries. They found a way to attach tin to a flat surface of the glass. In 1407, Venetians, the brothers Danzalo Del Gallo, bought a patent from the Flemish masters, and Venice kept the monopoly on the production of excellent Venetian mirrors of one and a half century. In addition, the masters have already created a special reflective mixture into which gold and bronze were added. Because of it, all objects reflected in the mirrors looked much more beautiful than in reality. The cost of one Venetian mirror was then comparable to the cost of a large warship. During the rebirth in Europe, the reflectors were made by coating with tin and mercury amalgam. In the sixteenth century Venice became the center of production for such mirrors. The plant for their manufacture called Saint-Goben was also created in France.

About mirrors and mysticism in Russia

In Russia, the mirrors were considered a devilish invention. In 1666, the Orthodox Church banned their use by priests. Since that time, many superstitions appeared against mirrors. Today, many of them seem funny and naive to us, but people reacted very seriously. For example, it was a sign of bad luck for seven years. That is why a man broke or crashed him first apologized for the clumsiness, and then he had to bury fragments according to all rituals. Mirror-talismans were used to reflect death. Previously, it was considered an ordinary practice to cover all reflective surfaces when someone in the house died. It was believed that this would not allow the soul of the deceased to be trapped in one of the mirrors, the devil.

The first reflecting devices in Germany

In the city of Nuremberg (Germany) in 1373, the first mirror plant was opened. And these accessories began to actively apply in all spheres of life. And in the XVI century mirrors become part of mystical rituals and mysterious witchcraft.

Who invented the mirror? Country: Germany? In 1835, Yustus von Lubih, a German chemist, developed silver plated glass reflectors, where the thin metal layer was applied to the glass using a chemical recovery. This invention made it possible to produce such products in a much larger scale, and for the first time in history, ordinary people could buy a mirror. In which country invented the mirror? Wikipedia tells only the facts of history. We can only compare.

Secret application

During the two centuries, spies from Spain and France used for encoding and decrypt confidential messages. This secret coding system was invented in the 15th century Leonardo da Vinci. Scriptures were encoded in "mirror reflection", so a message was impossible without such a surface. The mirrors were part of the other invention of the time - periscope. The ability to promptly look at the enemy through the system of interacting reflective lenses saved life in war time. In the mirrors were used to blind the enemy during hostilities intense reflection of the sun's rays. It was very difficult to shake when the eyes were blinded by thousands of tiny reflectors.

Mirrors made a long journey throughout the story. Today it is impossible to find a house without this simple subject. They have long become part of the everyday routine, often undervalued. We must always respect aspects of the historical development of mirrors and appreciate the incredible aesthetic value of their own reflection.

In it we look every day several times. Imagine life without this subject is no longer possible. However, there were times when people did without him. Although not quite: they admired his reflection, looking into the puddles, streams and rivers. A little later, there was a need for a clearer image, then the mirrors appeared, whose history we will tell in our article.

The history of the first mirrors

The earliest man-made mirrors, in the form of pieces of polished black volcanic vitreous stone - obsidian, found in modern Turkey, in Anatolia. Their age refers to 6000 BC.

One of the first to enjoy artificial reflectors, there were ancient Egyptians. They produced mirrors from polished copper and decorated the opposite side of the ornament. In 2900 BC. So familiar to us accessory appeared in China, there he was made from bronze.

About 2 thousand years BC The need for the reflector appeared in residents of Central and South America.

As a mirror, they used perfectly polished iron ore. Later, other materials and more complex products appeared. One of the most popular classical mesoameric culture samples is mosaic pyrite mirrors, which were widely used in the famous city of Teotihuakan.

Something similar to the modern mirror began to make in 1 G. AD. Then the Romans took the glass and applied a thin layer of lead, gold or tin on his back part. These were the first attempt to invent the glass mirror, which we use now.

History of modern mirror

The history of modern mirrors is customary from the XIII century, or rather from 1240. Then in Europe learned to blow the vessels from the glass. However, the present glass mirror invented the Italian Monk Franciscan John Pekam. He described the entire production process:

"From the glass, you need to blow the ball and pour into it through the tube molten tin, which should grow with a smooth layer on the surface of the vessel. Wait while the ball will cool, and after split it into pieces. "

This mirror, of course, had a lot of flaws, the main of which are concave fragments distorting the image. However, in contrast to the predecessors, this surface is at least bright and clean.

Of course, over time and this technology has been improved.

At the beginning of the XVI century. Masters learned to make flat mirrors. The hot glass cylinder was cut along. These halves rolled out on the copper table top and applied Amalgams on them. So ordinary glass turned into a mirror.

But this is not the limit of perfection.

Truly revolutionary turned out to produce mirrors of the German chemist Ystusa von Libiha. In 1835, he added silver to the usual composition, thus obtaining a clearer and clear image. By the way, this technology today practically did not change, and it is still used in the manufacture of mirrors.

Secrets around mirrors

As soon as the mirrors appeared, the legends associated with this magical object immediately appeared. For example, in mesoamer, this accessory was considered an important element of religious rites.

One of the most common misconceptions among the peoples of Maya, Aztecs and Tarasov was the confidence that mirrors are portals with which you can communicate with the gods and otherworldly forces.

And in the medieval period (until the XIII century) from glass mirrors and got rid of. It was believed that the devil looks at the world from the opposite side of the reflective surface. The fashionista of that pore should have used metal polished surfaces or worse - watered in the bowls with water.

Russia was a superstitious country. In 1666, the Orthodox Church banned the use of mirrors with priests. And in general, the mirrors were considered to be a devilish invention, to handle with whom it should be neat. In this regard, many believes arose. Today they seem funny to us, but before people treated them very seriously. For example, a person who broke the mirror will not take for 7 years. But it was possible to avoid this sad fate. To do this, the clumsy should be apologized to the mirror, and then bury his fragments according to all rituals.

Many, probably, know this belief: if a person died in the house, then according to custom, all reflective surfaces must be closed with bedspreads or sheets. Did you think, why is it done? It was believed that the mirror was the trap of the devil, closing, which, relatives are killing the soul of the deceased from imprisonment.

Secret application of mirrors

Today, mirrors are used everywhere: in everyday life and in production, they are important components of the majority of inventions, such as a telescope, camcorder, laser, etc. We know about it, and it is not a secret.

But once the property of reflectivity was used for secret purposes.

Within two centuries, spies from Spain and France with the help of the mirrors were encoded and detected by secret messages. This secret system was invented in the XV century. Italian artist and scientists Leonardo da Vinci. He loved to encrypt his letters in a mirror reflection, he often used this encoding and on his canvases.

The mirrors were also part of the other invention of the time - periscope. In wartime, the possibility of invisible peeping behind the enemy saved many lives. In a thirty-year-old war (1618-1648), the mirrors were used to blind the enemy. Agree when a bright ray of the Sun is shining in the eye, it is very difficult to aim.

Complete our story about the mirrors I would like another believe. It is known that the optical surface of even the best mirror not only reflects, but also partially absorbs energy. So the information, "remembered" with a mirror, affects the subconscious. By the way, if you don't like your day every day appearanceIn short, you will not be satisfied with your well-minded. That this does not happen, according to experts, before the mirror, it is necessary to smile more often and, on the contrary, as less often approaching him in the bad location of the Spirit. However, believe it or not, you can only solve you.

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John Pekami described the way to cover the glass with a thin layer of tin.

The production of the mirror looked like this. In the vessel through the tube, the master poured the molten tin, which was growing with a smooth layer on the surface of the glass, and when the ball was cooled, it was broken into pieces. The first mirror was imperfect: concave fragments slightly distorted the image, but it became bright and clean.

Application

Application in everyday life

The first mirrors were created in order to monitor their own appearance [ ] .

Currently, mirrors are especially large, widely used in interior design to create the illusion of space, a large volume in small rooms. Such a tradition arose in the Middle Ages as soon as the technical possibility of creating large mirrors appeared in France, not so ruinitively expensive as Venetian. Since that time, not a single wider cabinet is without mirrors [ ] .

Mirrors as reflectors

Application in scientific devices

As an optical tool, flat, concave and convex spherical, parabolic, hyperbolic and elliptical mirrors are used.

Mirrors are widely used in optical instruments - spectrophotometers, spectrometers in other optical instruments:

• SLR Cameras
• Lens, for example, mirror-lens telephoto lens Maxutov system (MTO).
• Periscope and mirror pseudoscope

Security devices, automotive and road mirrors

In cases where a person's review for some reason is limited, the mirrors are especially useful. So, in every car, on the road bikes there is one or more mirrors, sometimes slightly convex - to expand the field of view.

On the roads and on close parking lots, stationary convex mirrors allow you to avoid clashes and accidents.

In the video surveillance systems, the mirror provides an overview in a greater number of directions from one camcorder.

Translucent mirrors

Translucent mirrors are sometimes called "mirror stools" or "one-sided stools". Such windows are applied to secretly monitoring people (in order to control the behavior or espionage), while the spy is in a dark room, and the observation object is in the lighted. The principle of action of the mirror glass is that the dull spy is not visible against the background of bright reflection.

Military

In medieval texts, the mirror is a way, a symbol of another world. The mirror is a symbol of eternity, because there is an entire thing in Në, which will have come that there is now, which is coming.

The literary admission "in the Watercalter" is widely used by the authors of books. The greatest fame acquired the Dilogy of Lewis Carroll - "Alice in Wonderland" and "Alice in the Watercald". A similar reception used Gaston Lero: in the book "Ghost of Opera", Kristina enters the Underground Ghost Residence through the Mirror. Through the mirror B. Kingdom of Crooked Mirrors Olya gets - the heroine of the eponymous story-fairy tale Vitaly Gubareva and the

How many times have we heard or read a fairy tale about the evil queen and a beautiful snow shop! - To the chagrin of the queen, the magic mirror believed the most beautiful in the light of the snow white. Who can say how many times the woman was looking for an answer to the excitement question in the mirror?! The mirror, unfortunately, is silent, because it is not magical, and everyone should guess the answer itself.

Once upon a time, the person leaned over the spring for the first time and saw himself on the surface of the water. Since before he had never seen his face, he was very frightened and thought that he was looking at Water. Perhaps that is why our fantasy created so many water spirits with human appearance, with a tail without it. According to Greek mythology, rivers and lakes in the old days, they literally bicked them, they had an equally small, as in the present time in the summer on the beach. Later, a person guessed that in the water he sees his own reflection, but the phenomenon itself remained still for him inexplicable and mysterious. The desire remains again and again to look at yourself. So there was a need for a mirror, at the same time a person began to look for more reliable ways to satisfy his desire than the smooth of water. For this purpose, polished stones were suitable, such as obsidian and pyrite, metals with a shiny surface - copper, bronze, silver and gold, rhinestone and even dark wood. These materials were most expensive, and for a simple people for a long time, the only "mirror" remained the surface of the water. The mythology of many nations has preserved legends associated with the mirror. The most famous of them, perhaps, the story of the beautiful young man Narcissue, who fell in love with his own reflection in the spring water and did not find the strength to move away from the spring. In the punishment for narcissism and coquetry, the gods turned the young man in a flower - Narcissus, who later became a symbol of oblivion and death.
  
About man, the first inventive mirror, there is an innumerable set of versions. According to the Bible, they were a tooth-cain, the first on earth a medical doctor. Egyptian and Hebrew mirrors were most of the copper. By Homer, his wife Odyssey Penelope had a golden mirror. In Rome, silver mirrors were preferred, the back of which was covered with gold plates. Unusually beautiful mirrors made up to the last century in China and Japan. In the Chinese, the mirror alloy consisted of 80 parts of copper, nine parts of lead and eight parts of antimony. Chinese mirrors were round in shape, with a diameter of 10-20 cm. The oldest Japanese mirror is supposedly a gift of the Sun God and enters the regalia of the Empire.
The initial and most important assignment of the mirror was, of course, purely utilitarian - to see its own reflection. Only later it began to acquire other functions, decorative or ritual. By the third millennium BC. e. Refines in the Egyptian art image of a round hand mirror. Such mirrors are also detected in burials. As a luxury object, the mirror quickly turned into a work of applied art. The root side was used for decor.
There is an assumption that in Egypt and Rome, where the production of glass has reached the high level by that time, glass mirrors met. According to the Roman writer, Pliny, in Sidone (in the Middle East) made glass mirrors with a dark surface that could be imitation of ancient obsidian mirrors. Unfortunately, not a single glass mirror of the ancient era did not reach us.
  
After the collapse of the Roman Empire and the ancient culture in Europe, there was a continuous pause in the production of both glass and mirrors. It is unlikely, of course that women for almost a whole millennium did not feed interest in their appearance. Obviously, they used metal mirrors, although the first medieval mirrors were preserved only from the thirteenth century. They are made of polished metal or rock crystal. The existence of mirrors is mentioned in medieval literature. In 625, the Roman dad of Bonifacea fourth sent a silver mirror as a gift to the English Queen Eitelberg. Images of manual mirrors and mirror boxes are found in Scotland on stone sculptures dating from 7-9 centuries. French philosopher Vincent Beauvais wrote in 1250 that the best are glass mirrors coated with lead. In Germany, the mirrors began to manufacture on the turn of 13-14 centuries.

  
The fourteenth century entered the history of European culture as a gallant age when the focus of the sophisticated secular society was elegantly dressed woman. The mirror has become an indispensable toilet item of a secular lady. Big and small wall, round and oval hand and miniature pocket mirrors appeared. The root side was decorated with beautiful miniatures, depicting usually love scenes. In the Middle Ages preferred slightly convex mirrors. Spherical mirrors in the Middle Ages were made of spherical glasses, from the inside they were covered with amalgam and divided into segments.
Mass propagation of mirrors contributed to the base on the island of Murano in the 13th century of glass workshops. The mirrors were made of inflatable glass, the root side was covered with graphite amalgam. Venetian mirrors won popularity throughout Europe, their production lasted until the 17th century. Then gradually the championship captured France, where in 1688 the method of mirror glass was found. At the same time, the mirror has acquired a new feature - it has become an important element of the inner design of the room. Sheet glass could be melted in noticeably large sizes than inflatable, the mirrors now became walls from the floor to the ceiling and even the ceiling. Mirror rooms and whole mirror galleries appeared. In the versal, for example, the mirror gallery has 306 mirrors. New and unexpected optical effects have been used.
  
The mirrors decorated not only the big ballroom halls, they were in other rooms. The smaller and intimate was the room, the more beautiful the mirror, as a result, it was almost lost its main purpose, it was dominant to become its framing. What only decorative materials were not used for the decor! First of all, exotic wood, as well as local valuable species of trees (walnut, etched pear tree) and even simple gilded wood. Metals used polished steel, bronze, gold-plated silver. Venetian masters reached unsurpassed mastery in the use of glass as an element of frame design. The small surface of the mirror with an engraved in the middle of a graceful female figure or a floral ornament was framed by gentle blue and pink glass flowers, leaves, vines. One of these mirrors, a gift of the Venice Government, has fallen later as a dowry to Estonia.
The fact that a person could see himself in the mirror gave rise to the faith from the very beginning to the magical properties of the mirror. For example, the view that the infants under the year could not be allowed to look in the mirror, otherwise they will grow flirt and arrogant. Greek philosopher Plato recommended drunk and embittered to look into the mirror to feel his shame and vices. Socrates warned the young: if they see themselves in the mirror are beautiful, do not destroy this beauty with ugly behavior and non-casing. Those who sees themselves in the mirror ugly, should strive to correct the lack of nature by adjacent and mind.
  
In Greece they looked in the mirror to find out if the sick recovery. Alexander Macedonian and King Solomon allegedly had mirrors in which they could see future events. The god of fire, the patron saint of a blacksmith craft Hephaestus made his friend - God of wine Dionysus such a mirror, with the help of which he could create creatures in his likeness.
Pretty extensive treatise on mirrors published on the turn of the 17-18 centuries Journal Des Luxus Und Der Moden. It was praising of the excellent properties of the mirror; Here I give only some of them:
"The mirror is a symbol of truth and honesty. If a good friend is the best gift of the Most High, then the mirror can be considered the second gift. Since what time in France, sophisticated manners appeared? From the time of time, the Kolber government (17th century) has made available to all the mirror. Why did the culture level before in France before in France? Because it began to use mirrors in Italy. Why are the provincials formed by provincials? Because in the province of mirrors less than in Paris. Why our ladies began to dress with a great taste and wear more beautiful Hairstyles? Because the mirrors appeared in which the ladies can see themselves from the head to the feet. Why is there any desire for freedom in the monasteries? Why are the nuns so willingly leave the cells? Because there are no mirrors in monasteries. Men and women in the monasteries major cities Would wers on the face to print their sins if it were not for a mirror that helps them to disguise. The mirror, however, not only leaves a pleasant impression, it affects us. Character improves when we see how ugly makes us anger. Just as the conscience is a mirror of our thoughts and the mirror is the conscience of our appearance. From all this it follows that the mirror, without a doubt, one of the most useful discoveries. "
  
Which from the above is the merit of the mirror, it remained to decide, of course, the reader. The actual reason that prompted the author of these rows is so enthusiastic response about the mirror, it turns out at the end of the article, where the author modestly notices that he can buy a mirror of any size and any price. Mentioned at the beginning of the article, Colbere was Minister of France, on the initiative of which the glass industry began to develop. Among his legacy, several mirrors were found, one very large Venetian, 0.6x1 meter, was estimated at 8000 livres. For comparison, I will note that the picture of Rafael that was in the same list was estimated only 3000 livres.
Among the mirrors, the curves of the mirror form a separate group, near which even a gloomy man begins to laugh the most healthy laugh - laugh at himself.
  
Magic mirrors who could give a response to beauties, as in a tale about Snow White, no. But some wonderful mirrors made it all, including in the Far East. The most interesting mirror made his beloved allegedly one Chinese artist, in him the woman until the end of his life saw in the mirror himself young and beautiful. Simple mirror fragments attached to the painted plate on a twisted out of the wire with a blanket with a blank leg and sold in an old fairs. As his owner was heard, the mirror was tucking and wrinkles were inconsistent.
Estimation of ages Man wanted to know who is the smartest, the strongest, most skilled, most beautiful. If in sports these questions solved the competition, then the exhaustive response has given a mirror. And today, they look at the girls in a mirror with a dumb question on the lips: "My light, a mirror, say ...".

The age of the most ancient mirrors on Earth - there are about seven thousand years. Prior to the invention of mirror glass in the case, stone and metal: gold, silver, bronze, tin, copper, rhinestone.

Gorgon's jellyfish turned into a stone when he saw his image in the pursuit of the Perseus shield. Archaeologists believe that the earliest mirrors are polished pieces of obsidian found in Turkey,

speed \u200b\u200b7,500 years. However, it was impossible in any of the ancient mirrors, for example, to consider himself from behind or distinguish between color shades.

In one of the Greek myths, Narcissue is narrated, which was lying on the shore of the lake, admiring his reflection in the water. Be Narcissus is a wealthy man, he must think, would acquire a mirror of polished metal. In those days, to bring a piece of steel or bronze with a palm with a palm, it was not so simple. In addition, the surface of such a mirror was oxidized and it had to clean it daily. Latin Spektrum B. german language turned into Spiegel ("Spiegel" - mirror). Of which you can conclude that the mirrors brought in Germany.

The invention of this mirror should be attributed to 1279, when Franciscan John feeds described the way to cover the glass with a thin layer of lead.

The first manufacturers of mirrors were Venetians. The technology was quite complicated: the thin layer of tin foil was superimposed on paper, which on the other hand covered with mercury, paper was laughed in mercury, and only then the glass was imposed on top, which pushed this puff pastry, and in the meantime, paper was pulled out. Of course, a similar mirror was very muddy - and yet it reflected more light than he was absorbed. Such a process remained with insignificant changes up to 1835, when the German professor Yustus von Lubich discovered that, using silver, you can get much clearer and sparkling mirrors.

The Republic of Naughty jealously guarded his monopoly. In 1454, she issued an order, which forbade mirrors to leave the country, and to those who had already done, who had commanded to return home. "Non-return" threatened to the karas in relation to their relatives. In the footsteps, they sent killers particularly persistently fugitives. As a result, the mirror of the three centuries remained an incredibly rare and fantastically expensive goods.

Louis XIV was literally preserved on the mirrors. It was in his time that the firm "San Goben" solved the secret of Venetian production, after which prices fell sharply. Mirrors began to appear on the walls of private houses, in picture frames. In the XVIII century, two thirds of Parisians have already acquired them. In addition, the ladies began to wear a small mirror attached by chains on the belt.

With how the glass mirror appeared late in the history of mankind, it cannot but cause amazement, how a huge role plays in superstitions and in popular culture at all. Already in the Middle Ages, in the sentence of one French witch among the list of its magical devices, the fragment of the mirror appears. With the help of the mirror, Russian girls were wondering on the groom. The mirror as it would open the space of the otherworldly, it was manilo, and scarecrow, so they treated him in dangerous: sometimes they were drunk, they sometimes drove the cat, sometimes turned to the wall, and sometimes broke.