>> Russian discoverers and travelers

§ 16. Russian discoverers and travelers

The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian researchers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched the perceptions of Russians about the world around them, contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. Russia for the first time fulfilled an old dream: her ships entered the World Ocean.

I.F.Kruzenshtern and Yu.F. Lisyansky.

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Russian navigators, along with European ones, are the most famous pioneers who discovered new continents, sections of mountain ranges and vast water areas.

They became the discoverers of significant geographic objects, took the first steps in the development of hard-to-reach territories, and traveled around the world. So who are they - the conquerors of the seas, and what exactly did the world know thanks to them?

Afanasy Nikitin - the very first Russian traveler

Afanasy Nikitin is rightfully considered the first Russian traveler who managed to visit India and Persia (1468-1474, according to other sources 1466-1472). On the way back, he visited Somalia, Turkey, Muscat. On the basis of his travels, Afanasy compiled the notes "Voyage across the Three Seas", which became popular and unique historical and literary textbooks. These records became the first book in the history of Russia, made not in the format of a story about a pilgrimage, but describing the political, economic and cultural characteristics of the territories.

Afanasy Nikitin

He was able to prove that even being a member of a poor peasant family, one can become a famous explorer and traveler. Streets, embankments in several Russian cities, a motor ship, a passenger train and an air terminal are named after him.

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Semyon Dezhnev, who founded the Anadyr prison

Cossack chieftain Semyon Dezhnev was an Arctic navigator who became the discoverer of a number of geographical objects. Wherever Semyon Ivanovich served, everywhere he strove to study new and previously unknown. He was even able to cross the East Siberian Sea on a makeshift koch, going from Indigirka to Alazeya.

In 1643, as part of a detachment of researchers, Semyon Ivanovich discovered Kolyma, where, with his associates, he founded the city of Srednekolymsk. A year later, Semyon Dezhnev continued his expedition, walked along the Bering Strait (which did not yet have this name) and discovered the easternmost point of the continent, later called Cape Dezhnev. Also, an island, a peninsula, a bay, a village are named after him.

Semyon Dezhnev

In 1648, Dezhnev hit the road again. His ship was wrecked in the waters located in the southern part of the Anadyr River. Having reached on skis, the sailors went up the river and stayed there for the winter. Subsequently, this place appeared on geographical maps and received the name Anadyr prison. As a result of the expedition, the traveler was able to make detailed descriptions and make a map of those places.

Vitus Ionassen Bering, who organized expeditions to Kamchatka

Two Kamchatka expeditions inscribed the names of Vitus Bering and his associate Alexei Chirikov in the history of sea discoveries. During the first voyage, the mariners carried out research and were able to supplement the geographic atlas with objects located in Northeast Asia and on the Pacific coast of Kamchatka.

The discovery of the Kamchatka and Ozerny peninsulas, the bays of Kamchatsky, Krest, Karaginsky, the Providence Bay, the island of St. Lawrence is also the merit of Bering and Chirikov. At the same time, another strait was found and described, which later became known as the Bering Strait.

Vitus Bering

The second expedition was undertaken by them with the aim of finding a way to North America and exploring the Pacific Islands. On this journey, Bering and Chirikov founded the Peter and Paul prison. It got its name from the combined names of their ships ("St. Peter" and "St. Paul) and later became the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

On the approach to the shores of America, the ships of like-minded people lost sight of each other, a heavy fog affected. "St. Peter", piloted by Bering, sailed to the west coast of America, but got into a violent storm on the way back - the ship was thrown onto the island. The last minutes of Vitus Bering's life passed on it, and the island subsequently began to bear his name. Chirikov also reached America on his ship, but successfully completed his voyage, having discovered several islands of the Aleutian ridge on the way back.

Khariton and Dmitry Laptev and their "named" sea

Cousins ​​Khariton and Dmitry Laptev were Vitus Bering's associates and assistants. It was he who appointed Dmitry the commander of the ship "Irkutsk", and his double-boat "Yakutsk" was led by Khariton. They took part in the Great Northern Expedition, the purpose of which was to study and accurately describe and map the Russian shores of the ocean, from the Yugorsky sphere to Kamchatka.

Each of the brothers made a significant contribution to the development of new territories. Dmitry became the first navigator who made a survey of the coast from the mouth of the Lena to the mouth of the Kolyma. He made detailed maps of these places, based on mathematical calculations and astronomical data.

Khariton and Dmitry Laptev

Khariton Laptev and his associates conducted research on the northernmost part of the Siberian coast. It was he who determined the size and outlines of the huge Taimyr Peninsula - he completed a survey of its eastern coast, was able to identify the exact coordinates of the coastal islands. The expedition took place in difficult conditions - a large amount of ice, snowstorms, scurvy, ice captivity - Khariton Laptev's team had to go through a lot. But they continued their work. On this expedition, Laptev's assistant Chelyuskin discovered the cape, which was later named in his honor.

Noting the great contribution of the Laptevs to the development of new territories, members of the Russian Geographical Society decided to name one of the largest seas of the Arctic after them. The strait between the mainland and the island of Bolshoi Lyakhovsky is also named in honor of Dmitry, and the western coast of Taimyr Island bears the name of Khariton.

Kruzenshtern and Lisyansky - organizers of the first Russian circumnavigation

Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky are the first Russian navigators to circumnavigate the world. Their expedition lasted three years (started in 1803 and ended in 1806). They set off with their crews on two ships, which bore the names "Nadezhda" and "Neva". The travelers passed through the Atlantic Ocean, entered the waters of the Pacific Ocean. The sailors sailed along them to the Kuril Islands, Kamchatka and Sakhalin.

Ivan Kruzenshtern This trip allowed us to collect important information. Based on the data obtained by the sailors, a detailed map of the Pacific Ocean was compiled. Another important result of the first Russian round-the-world expedition was the data obtained on the flora and fauna of the Kuriles and Kamchatka, local residents, their customs and cultural traditions.

During their voyage, the sailors crossed the equator and, according to maritime traditions, could not leave this event without a well-known ritual - a sailor, disguised as Neptune, greeted Kruzenshtern and asked why his ship had arrived where the Russian flag had never been. To which he received the answer that they were here exclusively for the glory and development of national science.

Vasily Golovnin - the first navigator who was rescued from Japanese captivity

Russian navigator Vasily Golovnin led two expeditions around the world. In 1806, while in the rank of lieutenant, he received a new appointment and became the commander of the sloop "Diana". Interestingly, this is the only case in the history of the Russian fleet when a lieutenant was entrusted with the control of the ship.

The leadership set the goal of a round-the-world expedition to study the North Pacific Ocean, with special attention to that part of it, which is located within the borders of the native country. Diana's path was not easy. The sloop passed the island of Tristan da Cunha, passed the Cape of Hope and entered a port belonging to the British. Here the ship was detained by the authorities. The British informed Golovnin about the beginning of the war between the two countries. The Russian ship was not declared captured, but the team was not allowed to leave the bay either. After spending more than a year in this position, in mid-May 1809 "Diana", led by Golovnin, tried to escape, which the sailors successfully succeeded in - the ship arrived in Kamchatka.

Vasily Golovin The next important task Golovnin received in 1811 - he had to compose descriptions of the Shantar and Kuril Islands, the shores of the Tatar Strait. During his travels, he was accused of violating sakoku principles and captured by the Japanese for more than 2 years. It was possible to rescue the command from captivity only thanks to the good relations between one of the Russian naval officers and an influential Japanese merchant, who was able to convince his government of the harmless intentions of the Russians. It is worth noting that before that, no one in history had returned from Japanese captivity.

In 1817-1819 Vasily Mikhailovich made another round-the-world voyage on the ship "Kamchatka" specially built for this.

Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev - discoverers of Antarctica

Captain Second Rank Thaddeus Bellingshausen was determined to find the truth in the question of the existence of the sixth continent. In 1819 he set out on the open sea, carefully preparing two sloops - "Mirny" and "Vostok". The latter was commanded by his associate Mikhail Lazarev. The first Antarctic round-the-world expedition set itself other tasks. In addition to finding irrefutable facts confirming or refuting the existence of Antarctica, the travelers were going to explore the waters of three oceans - the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian.

Thaddeus Bellingshausen The results of this expedition exceeded all expectations. For 751 days, which it lasted, Bellingshausen and Lazarev were able to make several significant geographical discoveries. Of course, the most important of them is the existence of Antarctica, this historical event took place on January 28, 1820. Also, during the trip, about two dozen islands were found and mapped, sketches with views of Antarctica, images of representatives of the Antarctic fauna were created.

Mikhail Lazarev

It is interesting that attempts to discover Antarctica were made more than once, but none of them was successful. European seafarers believed that either it does not exist, or it is located in places that simply cannot be reached by sea. But Russian travelers had enough perseverance and determination, therefore the names of Bellingshausen and Lazarev are included in the lists of the greatest navigators in the world.

Yakov Sannikov

Yakov Sannikov (about 1780, Ust-Yansk, Russian Empire - after 1811) - Russian merchant from Yakutsk, fox, mammoth tusks and explorer of the New Siberian Islands.
He is known as the discoverer of the ghost island "Sannikov Land", which he saw from the New Siberian Islands. Discovered and described the islands of Stolbovoy (1800) and Faddeevsky (1805).
In 1808-1810 he took part in the expedition of the exiled Riga Swede M. M. Gedenshtrom. In 1810 he crossed the island of New Siberia, in 1811 he bypassed the island of Faddeevsky.
Sannikov expressed his opinion about the existence to the north of the New Siberian Islands, in particular from the Kotelny Island, a vast land called "Sannikov Land".

After 1811, traces of Yakov Sannikov are lost. No further occupation or year of death is known. In 1935, the pilot Gratsiansky, who flew in the lower reaches of the Lena River, near Kyusyur discovered a tombstone with the inscription "Yakov Sannikov". The strait, through which a section of the Northern Sea Route passes today, is named in his honor. Opened in 1773 by the Yakut industrialist Ivan Lyakhov. Initially, the strait was named after the expedition doctor E.V. Tollya V.N. Katina-Yartseva F.A. Mathisen. The current name was given to K.A. Vollosovich on his map, and in 1935 it was approved by the government of the USSR.

Grigory Shelikhov

Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov (Shelekhov; 1747, Rylsk - July 20, 1795, Irkutsk) - Russian explorer, navigator, industrialist and merchant from the Shelekhov family, who since 1775 was engaged in the arrangement of commercial merchant shipping between the Kuril and Aleutian island ridges. In 1783-1786 he headed an expedition to Russian America, during which the first Russian settlements in North America were founded. He organized several trading and fishing companies, including in Kamchatka. Grigory Ivanovich mastered new lands for the Russian Empire, was the initiator of the Russian-American company. Founder of the North-East Company.

The bay was named in his honor. Shelikhov Bay (Kamchatka Region, Russia) is located between the Asian coast and the base of the Kamchatka Peninsula. Refers to the water area of ​​the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.

Ferdinand Wrangel

Wrangel showed himself from the best side, and he, tested in a difficult round-the-world voyage, is instructed to lead an expedition to the extreme northeast of Siberia, to the estuaries of the Yana and Kolyma, in order to map the coast of the Arctic Ocean up to the Bering Strait, and besides this, test the hypothesis about the existence of an undiscovered land connecting Asia with America.
Wrangel spends three years in the ice and tundra with his companions, among whom his main assistant was Fyodor Matyushkin - Lyceum comrade A.S. Pushkin.
In the intervals between the campaigns to the North, under the leadership of Wrangel and Matyushkin, a topographic survey of the huge coast was made, covering 35 degrees in longitude. On the territory of the recently white spot, 115 astronomical points were identified. For the first time, studies of the influence of climate on the existence and development of sea ice were carried out, and the first meteorological station in this region was organized in Nizhnekolymsk. Thanks to meteorological observations of this station, it was established that in the interfluve of the Yana and Kolyma rivers there is a "cold pole" of the Northern Hemisphere.
Ferdinand Wrangel described the expedition and its scientific results in detail in a book that was first published in 1839 and was a huge success. The renowned Swedish polar explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskjöld called it "one of the masterpieces among the writings on the Arctic."

The expedition to the Chukotka-Kolyma Territory put Wrangel on a par with the largest explorers of the harsh Arctic. Later, becoming one of the founders of the Russian Geographical Society, he thought over a project for an expedition to the North Pole. He proposes to go to the Pole on a ship, which is to spend the winter off the northern coast of Greenland, to prepare food warehouses along the route of the Pole Party in the fall, and in March people go out exactly in the direction of the meridian on ten sledges with dogs. Interestingly, the plan to reach the pole, drawn up by Robert Peary, who entered the pole 64 years later, repeated Wrangel's old project in the smallest detail. An island in the Arctic Ocean, a mountain and a cape in Alaska are named after Wrangel. Having learned about the sale of Alaska by the Russian government in 1867, Ferdinand Petrovich reacted very negatively to this.

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In the 19th century, Russian explorers made a number of outstanding geographical discoveries. In 1803 I. Kruzenshtern on "Nadezhda" and "Neva" made the 1st Russian round-the-world expedition exploring the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Sakhalin, Alaska, Aleutian Islands. Yu. Lisyanakiy discovered one of the Hawaiian Islands on the Neva. In 1819-21 F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev on the sloops "Vostok" and "Mirny" made the 2nd Arctic expedition. During its 16.1.1820 ships approached Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the "ice continent." After resting in Australia, the expedition moved to the tropical Pacific Ocean and discovered islands in the Tuamotu archipelago. They were named in honor of Kutuzov, Lazarev, Raevsky, Barclay de Tolly, Ermolov and others. After resting in Sydney, the ships returned to Antarctica and discovered about. Peter I and the land of Alexander I. In July 1821 the ships returned to Kronstadt, bringing a huge amount of materials and collections. The development of Russian America is associated with the name of A. Baranov. A merchant from Kargopol traded in Alaska since 1790. He made detailed maps of Alaska and the surrounding islands. In 1799 Baranov became the ruler of the colonies in America. B1804 He founded Novoarkhangelsk. Baranov tried to annex Hawaii to Russia, but failed. Despite his illness, he remained in office until his death. The territory of the Far East remained a blank spot on the Russian map. In 1848 Nicholas 1 sent G. Nevelskoy's expedition to the Far East. He proved that Sakhalin is an island and explored the lower reaches of the Amur. E. Putyatin during the expedition around the world in 1822-25. discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands and entered into an agreement with Japan. Around the world expeditions were made by V. Golovin-1807-11, F. Litke-1826-29 and made 50 maps. I. Voznesensky in 1839-40 described Alaska, the Aleutian and Kuril Islands. In 1809 A. Kolodkin began to study the Caspian. In 1848 E. Hoffman and M. Kovalsky explored Sev. Ural. In 1845 the Russian Geographical Society was created.

Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century made a number of outstanding discoveries that became the property of not only Russian, but also foreign, world science. In addition, they made a significant contribution to the development of domestic knowledge and did a lot to facilitate the training of new personnel for the development of marine research.

Prerequisites

Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century made their discoveries largely because this century indicated the need to search for new trade routes and opportunities to support Russia's ties with other countries. In the late 18th - early 19th centuries, our country finally consolidated its status in the international arena as a world power. Naturally, this new position expanded its geopolitical space, which required new exploration of the seas, islands and ocean coasts for the construction of ports, ships and the development of trade with foreign states.

Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century established themselves as talented navigators at the very time when our country achieved access to two seas: the Baltic and the Black. And this is no coincidence. This opened up new prospects for naval research and gave impetus to the construction and development of fleets, and naval affairs in general. Therefore, it is not surprising that already in the first decades of the century under consideration, Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century carried out a number of outstanding studies that significantly enriched Russian geographical science.

Around the World Expedition Plan

Such a project became possible largely due to the successful military actions of our country at the end of the 18th century. At this time, Russia got the opportunity to build its own fleet in the Black Sea, which, of course, was supposed to stimulate maritime affairs. Russian seafarers at this time seriously thought about building convenient trade routes. This was also facilitated by the fact that our country owned Alaska in North America. It was also necessary to maintain constant contacts with her and develop economic cooperation.

I.F. At the end of the 18th century, Kruzenshtern presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. However, he was then rejected. But just a few years later, after the accession of Alexander I, the Russian government showed interest in the presented plan. He got approval.

Training

I.F. Kruzenshtern came from a noble family. He studied at the Kronstadt Naval Corps and, being his student, took part in the war against Sweden, having established himself well then. After that, he was sent to an internship in England, where he received an excellent education. Upon returning to Russia, he presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. Having received approval, he carefully prepared for it, purchased the best instruments and equipped the ships.

His closest assistant in this matter was his friend Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky. He made friends with him while still in the cadet corps. The friend also proved himself to be a talented naval officer during the Russian-Swedish war of 1788-1790. Soon two ships were equipped under the names "Neva" and "Nadezhda". The latter was led by Count Nikolai Rezanov, who became famous thanks to the famous rock opera. The expedition set sail in 1803. Its goal was to explore and explore the possibility of opening new trade routes from Russia to China and the coast of North American territory.

Swimming

Russian sailors rounded Cape Horn and, having entered the Pacific Ocean, parted. Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky led his ship to the North American shores, where he recaptured the Russian merchant city of Novo-Arkhangelsk captured by the Indians. During this voyage, he also sailed for the first time in the history of sailing a sailing ship around South Africa.

The vessel "Nadezhda" headed by Kruzenshtern set off for the Sea of ​​Japan. The merit of this researcher is that he carefully explored the shores of Sakhalin Island and made significant changes to the map. The main thing was to investigate what the leadership of the Pacific Fleet had been interested in for a long time. Kruzenshtern entered the Amur estuary, after which, having explored the shores of Kamchatka, he returned to his homeland.

Kruzenshtern's contribution to science

Travelers to Russia have significantly advanced Russian geographical science, bringing it to the world level of development. attracted the attention of the general public. After the end of the trip, both wrote books describing the results of their research. Kruzenshtern published A Journey Around the World, but his atlas with hydrographic supplements is of particular importance. He filled in many blank spots on the map, conducted the most valuable research of the seas and oceans. So, he studied the pressure and temperature of water, sea currents, ebbs and flows.

Social activity

His further career was closely associated with the naval corps, where he was first assigned as an inspector. Subsequently, he began to teach there, and then generally headed it. On his initiative, the Higher Officer Classes were created. Later they were transformed into the Maritime Academy. Kruzenshtern introduced new disciplines into the educational process. This significantly increased the quality level of teaching maritime affairs.

In addition, he helped in organizing other expeditions, in particular, contributed to the plans of another prominent explorer O. Kotzebue. Kruzenshtern took part in the creation of the famous Russian Geographical Society, which was destined to take one of the leading places not only in Russian, but also in world science. The Atlas of the South Sea, published by him, was of particular importance for the development of geography.

Preparing a new expedition

Kruzenshtern, several years after his journey, insisted on a thorough study of the southern latitudes. He proposed to equip two expeditions to the North and South Poles, two ships in each. Prior to this, the navigator almost came close to Antarctica, but ice prevented him from going further. Then he assumed that the sixth continent either does not exist, or it is impossible to get to it.

In 1819, the Russian leadership decided to equip a new sailing squadron. Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen, after a series of delays, was appointed its leader. It was decided to build two ships: "Mirny" and "Vostok". The first was designed according to the plan of Russian scientists. It was distinguished by its strength and water resistance. However, the second, built in Great Britain, was less stable, so it had to be altered, rebuilt and renovated more than once. The preparation and construction was supervised by Mikhail Lazarev, who complained about such a discrepancy between the two ships.

Travel south

A new expedition set off in 1819. She reached Brazil and, having rounded the mainland, came to the Sandvic Islands. In January 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the sixth continent - Antarctica. During maneuvers, many islands were discovered and described around it. Among the most significant discoveries are the island of Peter I, the coast of Alexander I. Having made the necessary description of the shores, as well as sketches of animals seen on the new mainland, Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen sailed back.

During the expedition, in addition to the discovery of Antarctica, other discoveries were made. For example, participants discovered that Sandwich Land is an entire archipelago. In addition, the island of South Georgia has been described. Descriptions of the new continent are of particular importance. From his ship, Mikhail Lazarev had the opportunity to better observe the earth, so his conclusions are of particular value for science.

The value of discoveries

The expedition of 1819-1821 was of great importance for national and world geographical science. The discovery of a new, sixth continent, turned the idea of ​​the geography of the Earth upside down. Both travelers published the results of their research in two volumes with an atlas attached and the necessary directions. During the trip, about thirty islands were described, magnificent sketches of the views of Antarctica and its fauna were made. In addition, the members of the expedition have collected a unique ethnographic collection, which is kept at the Kazan University.

Further activities

Bellingshausen subsequently continued his naval career. He took part in the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829, commanded the Baltic Fleet, and then was appointed governor of Kronstadt. An indication of the recognition of his merits is the fact that a number of geographical objects are named after him. First of all, the sea in the Pacific Ocean should be mentioned.

Lazarev also distinguished himself after his famous trip to Antarctica. He was appointed commander of the expedition to protect the shores of Russian America from smugglers, with which he successfully coped. Subsequently, he commanded the Black Sea Fleet, participated in for which he was awarded several awards. So, the great pioneers from Russia also made their outstanding contribution to the development of geography.

Russia was becoming a great maritime power, and this posed new challenges for Russian geographers.
In 1803-1806. the first Russian round-the-world expedition was undertaken from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. It was headed by Admiral Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern (1770-1846). He commanded the ship "Nadezhda". The ship "Neva" was commanded by Captain Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky (1773-1837). During the expedition, the islands of the Pacific Ocean, China, Japan, Sakhalin and Kamchatka were studied. Detailed maps of the explored sites were compiled. Lisyansky, having independently made the transition from Hawaii to Alaska, collected a wealth of material about the peoples of Oceania and North America.
The attention of researchers around the world has long been attracted by the mysterious area around the South Pole. It was assumed that there is a vast southern continent. English navigator J. Cook in the 70s of the 18th century. crossed the South Arctic Circle, came across impassable ice and declared that sailing further south was impossible. Since then, there have been no South Polar expeditions for a very long time.

In 1819, Russia sent an expedition to the southern polar seas on two sloops led by Faddey Faddeevich Bellingshausen (1778-1852). He commanded the sloop Vostok. The commander of the "Mirny" was Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev (1788-1851). Bellingshausen was an experienced explorer, participated in the voyage of the Krusenstern. Lazarev later became famous as a combat admiral, who brought up a whole galaxy of naval commanders (Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin).
The expedition crossed the South Arctic Circle several times, and in January 1820 saw the ice coast for the first time. Approaching it in the area of ​​the present-day Bellingshausen ice shelf, the travelers concluded that in front of them was an "ice continent". Then the island of Peter I and the coast of Alexander I were discovered. In 1821 the expedition returned to its homeland, having made the discovery of Antarctica and a complete voyage around it on small sailing ships, little adapted to polar conditions.
In 1811, Russian sailors led by Captain Vasily Mikhailovich Golovkin (1776-1831) explored the Kuril Islands and were taken into Japanese captivity. Golovkin's notes about his three-year stay in Japan introduced Russian society to the life of this mysterious country. Golovnin's student, Fedor Petrovich Litke (1797-1882) explored the Arctic Ocean, the shores of Kamchatka and America. He founded the Russian Geographical Society, which played an important role in the development of geographical science.
Major geographical discoveries in the Russian Far East are associated with the name of Gennady Ivanovich Nevelskoy (1813-1876). In 1848-1849. he sailed around Cape Horn to Kamchatka, and then led the Amur expedition. He opened the mouth of the Amur, the strait between Sakhalin and the mainland and proved that Sakhalin is an island, not a peninsula.
The expeditions of Russian travelers, in addition to purely scientific results, were of great importance in the matter of mutual knowledge of peoples. In distant countries, locals often learned about Russia for the first time from Russian travelers. In turn, the Russian people were enriched with knowledge about other countries and peoples.