In this article, you will learn:

The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) is one of the largest military conflicts of the 18th century. Its participants were countries whose possessions spread over all the then known continents (Australia and Antarctica were still unknown).

Main participants:

• Austria Habsburgs
• Great Britain
• Russian empire
• Prussian kingdom
• French kingdom

The reasons

The precondition for the conflict was the unresolved geopolitical issues of the great powers of Europe in the previous confrontation - the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748). The immediate causes of the new war were the contradictions between:

1. England and France regarding their overseas possessions, in other words, there was an acute colonial rivalry.

2. Austria and Prussia concerning the Silesian territories. In a previous conflict, the Prussians took Silesia, the most industrialized region of the Habsburg monarchy, to the Austrians.

War Map

Coalition

As a result of the last war, two coalitions were formed:

- Habsburg (main participants: Austria, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia, Saxony);

- anti-Habsburg (Prussia, France, Saxony).

By the mid-1750s, the situation remained, except that the Dutch chose neutrality, and the Saxons did not want to fight anymore, but maintained close relations with the Russians and Austrians.

During 1756, the so-called. "Diplomatic coup". In January, secret negotiations between Prussia and England ended, and a subsidiary agreement was signed. Prussia had to defend the European possessions of the English king (Hanover) for a fee. One enemy was expected - France. As a result, the coalitions have completely changed over the year.

Now two groups confronted each other:

• Austria, Russia, France
• England and Prussia.

The other participants did not play a significant role in the war.

The beginning of the war

Frederick II the Great of Prussia - the protagonist of the Seven Years War

The beginning of the war is considered to be the first battles in Europe. Both camps no longer hid their intentions, so the allies of Russia discussed the fate of Prussia, its king Frederick II did not wait for the blows. In August 1756 he was the first to take action: he invaded Saxony.

There were three main theaters of war:

• Europe
• North America
• India.

In Russian historiography, the former and the latter are often considered separately from the war in Europe.

Fighting in North America

Back in January 1755, the British government decided to intercept a French convoy in the Canadian region. The attempt was unsuccessful. Versailles learned about this and broke off diplomatic relations with London. The confrontation was also on the ground - between the British and French colonists, with the involvement of the Indians. An undeclared war was fought in North America that year.

The decisive battle was the Battle of Quebec (1759), after which the British captured the last French outpost in Canada.

In the same year, a powerful British landing force captured Martinique, the center of French trade in the West Indies.

European theater

Here the main events of the war unfolded and all the warring parties took part in them. The stages of the war are conveniently structured by campaigns: every year there is a new campaign.

It is noteworthy that, in general, military clashes were fought against Frederick II. Great Britain provided most of the aid in money. The contribution of the army was insignificant, limited to the Hanoverian and neighboring lands. Also, Prussia was supported by small Germanic principalities, providing their resources under the Prussian command.

Frederick II at the Battle of Kunersdorf

At the beginning of the war, the impression was formed of a quick victory of the Allies over Prussia. However, for various reasons, this did not happen. It:

- lack of well-coordinated coordination between the commands of Austria, Russia and France;

- Russian commanders in chief did not have the right to initiate, they depended on the decisions of the so-called. Conferences at the Imperial Court.

On the contrary, Frederick the Great allowed his generals, if necessary, to act at their own discretion, to negotiate a ceasefire, etc. The king himself directly commanded his army and lived in march. He could carry out lightning marches, thanks to which he fought "simultaneously" on different fronts. In addition, in the middle of the century, the Prussian military machine was considered exemplary.

Main battles:

• under Rosbach (November 1757).
• at Zorndorf (August 1758).
• at Kunersdorf (August 1759).
• the capture of Berlin by the troops of Z.G. Chernyshev (October 1760).
• at Freiberg (October 1762).

With the outbreak of war, the Prussian army proved its ability to confront the three largest states of the continent almost alone. Until the late 1750s, the French lost their American holdings, the profits from which went to finance the war, including aid to Austria and Saxony. In general, the forces of the allies began to deplete. Also, Prussia was exhausted, she held on only thanks to the financial assistance of England.

In January 1762, the situation changed: the new Russian emperor Peter III sent Frederick II an offer of peace and union. Prussia took this turn as a gift of fate. The Russian Empire withdrew from the coalition, but did not sever relations with its former allies. The dialogue with Britain was also intensified.

The anti-Prussian coalition began to fall apart after Russia Sweden (in April) announced its intentions to withdraw from the war. In Europe, they feared that Peter III would perform together with Frederick the Great, but only a separate corps was transferred under the banner of the latter. However, the emperor was going to fight: with Denmark for his hereditary rights in Holstein. However, this adventure was avoided due to the palace coup, which in June 1762 brought Catherine II to power.

In the fall, Frederick won a brilliant victory at Freiberg and used this as an important argument for the conclusion of peace. By that time, the French had lost their possessions in India and were forced to sit down at the negotiating table. Austria could no longer fight on its own.

Theater of war in Asia

In India, it all began with the confrontation between the ruler of Bengal and the British in 1757. The colonial French administration declared neutrality, even after news of the war in Europe. However, the British quickly began attacking the French outposts. Unlike the previous War of the Austrian Succession, France was unable to turn the tide in its favor, and was defeated in India.

Peace was resumed after the conclusion of treaties on February 10, 1762 in Paris (between England and France) on February 15, 1763 in Hubertusburg (between Austria and Prussia).

Results of the war:

• Austria received nothing.
• Great Britain was the winner.
• Russia withdrew from the war ahead of time, so it did not take part in peace negotiations, retained the status quo and once again demonstrated its military potential.
• Prussia finally secured Silesia and entered the family of the strongest countries in Europe.
• France lost almost all of its overseas territories and gained nothing in Europe.

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The armed clash of France with England and Austria with Prussia in 1756 1763 went down in history under the name of the "Seven Years War". Irreconcilable rivals drew other states into it as well. Our article tells about Russia's participation in this war.

The beginning of the war for Russia

In 1756, the transformations begun by Empress Elizabeth continued in the Russian army. They concerned both the formation of the troops themselves, the principles of combat, and the supply system of everything necessary. Therefore, the army did not start a new military campaign in 1757 with confidence.

Since the Russian troops in the Seven Years' War were on the side of Austria, it was no longer possible to postpone participation until a later date. Prussia strengthened its position by capturing Saxony, and rather successfully repelled the attacks of the French and Austrian armies.

Fig. 1. Russian soldiers of the 18th century.

General Apraksin, appointed commander, only in July 1757 decided to take active steps. Russian troops crossed the border of Prussia and were able to win a victory at Gross-Jegersdorf. But, instead of consolidating the success, the general gave the order to retreat. For which he was stripped of his rank and sent to Russia under arrest.

Apraksin suffered from his excessive foresight. Knowing about the grave illness of the empress, he expected the imminent rise to power of Peter ΙΙΙ, who considered Prussia a more advantageous ally. But Elizaveta Petrovna continued to rule.

Fig. 2. Field Marshal Stepan Fedorovich Apraksin.

Participation and results

In Russia, three more commanders-in-chief were replaced: Fermor, Saltykov, Buturlin. Continuing the reorganization of the army, they managed to achieve serious results. Russian troops took part in such important battles:

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• Zorndorf in August 1758 : heavy losses of both armies;
• At Palzig in July 1759 : the defeat of the Prussian army;
• Kunersdorf in August 1759 : victory of the Russian-Austrian troops;
• Near Berlin in October 1760 : the capture of Berlin by the Russians, at that time the capital of Prussia;
• Near Kohlberg in autumn 1761 : the capitulation of the Prussian troops.

This was the last Russian victory in the Seven Years War. After the death of Empress Elizabeth (December 1761), Peter ΙΙΙ who ascended the throne in 1762 ceased military operations against Prussia.

The results of the war for Russia turned out to be ambiguous. On the one hand, she signed an unprofitable peace treaty with Prussia (1762), according to which she voluntarily renounced all the occupied territories, without recouping the costs of participating in the battles. On the other hand, the Russian troops gained invaluable experience in conducting military operations in the new conditions.

It was during the Seven Years War that the Russian army first appeared in Berlin, occupying it with minimal losses. At the time, this achievement brought Russia only financial benefits. Later, its historical significance became clear.

Fig. 3. Russian troops in Berlin (1760).

What have we learned?

From the article we learned that since 1757 Russia has been quite active in the Seven Years War, supporting the Austro-French alliance. Russian troops achieved significant results, but due to the change of power in 1762, they were forced to stop the offensive against Prussia.

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The Seven Years War (1756–1763) is a war between two coalitions for hegemony in Europe, as well as for colonial possessions in North America and India.

General political situation. The reasons

One coalition included England and Prussia, the other - France, Austria and Russia. Between England and France there was a struggle for colonies in North America. There, clashes began in 1754, and in 1756 England declared war on France. 1756, January - the Anglo-Prussian alliance was concluded. In response, the main rival of Prussia, Austria, decided to make peace with its longtime enemy France.

The Austrians wanted to reclaim Silesia, while the Prussians hoped to conquer Saxony. Sweden entered the Austro-French defensive alliance, hoping to recapture Stettin and other territories from Prussia that were lost during the Great Northern War. By the end of the year, Russia had joined the Anglo-French coalition, hoping to conquer East Prussia in order to later transfer it to Poland in exchange for Courland and Semigallia. Prussia was supported by Hanover and several small North German states.

The course of hostilities

1756 - invasion of Saxony

The King of Prussia had a well-trained army of 150 thousand, at that time the best in Europe. 1756, August - he invaded Saxony with an army of 95 thousand people and inflicted a series of defeats on the Austrian army, who came to the aid of the Saxon elector. On October 15, a 20,000-strong Saxon army surrendered at Pirna, and its soldiers joined the ranks of the Prussian army. After that, the 50 thousandth Austrian army left Saxony.

Attack on Bohemia, Silesia

1757, spring - the Prussian king invaded Bohemia with an army of 121.5 thousand people. At this time, the Russian army had not yet launched an invasion of East Prussia, and France was going to act against Magdeburg and Hanover. On May 6, 64 thousand Prussians defeated 61 thousand Austrians near Prague. Both sides in this battle lost 31.5 thousand killed and wounded, and the Austrian troops also lost 60 guns. As a result, 50 thousand Austrians were blocked in the capital of the Czech Republic by the 60 thousandth Prussian army. For the unblockade of Prague, the Austrians gathered at Colin's 54-thousandth army of General Down with 60 guns. She moved towards Prague. Frederick sent 33 thousand people with 28 heavy guns against the Austrian troops.

Battles of Colin, Rosbach and Leuthen

1757, June 17 - Prussian troops began to bypass the right flank of the Austrian position at Colin from the north, but Down was able to notice this maneuver in time and deployed his forces to the north. When the next day the Prussians launched an attack, delivering the main blow against the enemy's right flank, they were met with heavy fire. General Gülsen's Prussian infantry was able to occupy the village of Krzegor, but the tactically important oak grove beyond it remained in the hands of the Austrians.

Down moved his reserve here. Finally, the main forces of the Prussians, concentrated on the left flank, could not withstand the rapid fire of enemy artillery, firing grapeshot, and fled. Here the Austrian troops of the left flank went over to the attack. Down's cavalry pursued the defeated enemy for several kilometers. The remnants of the Prussian army retreated to Nimburg.

Down's victory was a consequence of the Austrians' one and a half superiority in men and twofold in artillery. Frederick's army lost 14 thousand killed, wounded and captured and almost all artillery, and the Austrians - 8 thousand people. The Prussian king was forced to lift the siege of Prague and retreat to the Prussian border.

Clockwise top left: Battle of Plass (23 June 1757); Battle of Carillon (July 6-8, 1758); Battle of Zorndorf (25 August 1758) Battle of Kunersdorf (12 August 1759)

The strategic position of Prussia seemed critical. Allied forces of up to 300,000 men were deployed against the Prussian army. Frederick II decided to first defeat the French army, reinforced by the troops of the principalities allied with Austria, and then again invade Silesia.

The 45 thousandth allied army took up a position at Mücheln. Frederick, who had only 24 thousand soldiers, with a false retreat to the village of Rosbach was able to lure the enemy out of the fortifications. The French hoped to cut off the Prussian army from the crossings across the Saale River and defeat them.

1757, November 5, morning - the allies marched in three columns, bypassing the enemy's left flank. This maneuver was covered by a detachment of 8,000, which engaged in a firefight with the Prussian vanguard. Frederick was able to unravel the enemy's plan and, at half past three in the afternoon, ordered to withdraw from the camp and simulate a retreat to Merseburg. The Allies attempted to intercept the escape routes by sending their cavalry around Janus Hill. But she was unexpectedly attacked and defeated by the Prussian cavalry under the command of General Seydlitz.

At this time, under cover of heavy fire from 18 artillery batteries, the Prussian infantry went on the offensive. Allied infantry had to line up in battle formation under enemy cannonballs. Soon, she was threatened with a flank attack by Seydlitz's squadrons, wavered and fled. The French and their allies lost 7 thousand killed, wounded and prisoners and all the artillery - 67 guns and a baggage train. The losses of the Prussian army were insignificant - only 540 killed and wounded. Here, both the qualitative superiority of the Prussian cavalry and artillery and the mistakes of the allied command affected. The French commander-in-chief started a difficult maneuver, as a result, most of the army was in the marching columns and did not have the opportunity to take part in the battle. Frederick got the opportunity to beat the enemy in parts.

Meanwhile, the Prussian army in Silesia was defeated. Frederick rushed to their aid with 21 thousand infantry, 11 thousand cavalry and 167 guns. The Austrians settled at the village of Leuthen on the banks of the Weistritz River. They had 59 thousand infantry, 15 thousand cavalry and 300 guns. 1757, December 5, morning - the Prussian cavalry threw back the Austrian vanguard, depriving the enemy of the opportunity to observe the army of Frederick. Therefore, the attack of the main forces of the Prussian army was a complete surprise for the Austrian commander-in-chief, Duke Karl of Lorraine.

The Prussian king, as always, delivered the main blow on his right flank, but by the actions of the vanguard he attracted the attention of the enemy to the opposite wing. When Karl realized his true intentions and began to rebuild his army, the order of battle of the Austrians was disrupted. Friedrich took advantage of this for a flank attack. The Prussian cavalry defeated the Austrian cavalry on the right flank and put them to flight. Then Seydlitz also attacked the Austrian infantry, previously driven back behind Leuthen by the Prussian infantry. Only darkness saved the remnants of the Austrian army from complete destruction. The Austrians lost 6.5 thousand people killed and wounded and 21.5 thousand prisoners, as well as all the artillery and baggage. The losses of the Prussian army did not exceed 6 thousand people. Silesia was again under Prussian control.

Frederick II the Great

East Prussia

Meanwhile, Russian troops began active hostilities. Back in the summer of 1757, the 65,000-strong Russian army under the command of General-Field Marshal S.F. Apraksin moved to Lithuania, intending to capture East Prussia. In August, the Russian army approached Konigsberg.

On August 19, the 22 thousandth detachment of the Prussian General Lewald attacked the Russian army near the village of Gross-Egersdorf, having no idea either of the true number of the enemy, which was almost three times superior to him, or of his location. Instead of the left flank, Lewald found himself in front of the center of the Russian position. The regrouping of the Prussian forces during the battle only exacerbated the situation. The right flank of Lewald was overturned, which could not be compensated for by the success of the left-flank Prussian troops, who captured the enemy battery, but did not have the opportunity to build on the success. The losses of the Prussians amounted to 5 thousand killed and wounded and 29 guns, the losses of the Russians reached 5.5 thousand people. Russian troops did not pursue the retreating enemy, and the battle at Gross-Jägersdorf was not decisive.

Suddenly, Apraksin gave the order to retreat, citing the lack of supplies and the separation of the army from its bases. The field marshal was charged with treason and put on trial. The only success was the capture of Memel by a 9 thousandth Russian landing party. This port was turned during the war into the main base of the Russian fleet.

1758 - the new commander-in-chief, General-in-Chief, Count V.V. Fermor, with a 70 thousandth army with 245 guns, could easily occupy East Prussia, captured Konigsberg and continued the offensive to the west.

Battle of Zorndorf

In August, a general battle of Russian and Prussian troops took place near the village of Zorndorf. On the 14th, the Prussian king, who had 32 thousand soldiers and 116 guns, attacked Fermor's army here, in which there were 42 thousand people and 240 guns. The Prussians managed to press the Russian army retreating to Kalisz. Fermor lost 7 thousand killed, 10 thousand wounded, 2 thousand prisoners and 60 guns. Frederick's losses reached 4 thousand killed, more than 6 thousand wounded, 1.5 thousand prisoners. Frederick did not pursue the defeated army of Fermor, but went to Saxony.

Seven Years War Map

1759 - Battle of Kunersdorf

1759 - Fermor was replaced by Field Marshal Count P.S. Saltykov. By this time, the Allies put up 440 thousand people against Prussia, to whom the Prussian king could only oppose 220 thousand. On June 26, the Russian army set out from Poznan to the Oder River. On July 23, in Frankfurt an der Oder, she joined up with the Austrian army. On July 31, the king of Prussia with an army of 48,000 took up a position near the village of Kunersdorf, hoping to meet here the combined Austro-Russian forces, which to a large extent outnumbered his troops.

Saltykov's army numbered 41 thousand people, and the Austrian army of General Down - 18.5 thousand people. On August 1, the Prussians attacked the left flank of the allied forces. The Prussian troops managed to capture an important height here and place a battery there, which brought down fire on the center of the Russian army. The Prussians pressed the center and the right flank of the Russians. But Saltykov was able to create a new front and launch a general counteroffensive. After a 7-hour battle, the Prussian army retreated in disarray beyond the Oder. Immediately after the battle, Frederick had only 3 thousand soldiers at hand, since the rest were scattered in the surrounding villages, and they had to be gathered under the banner for several days.

Frederick's army lost 18 thousand people killed and wounded, the Russians - 13 thousand, and the Austrians - 2 thousand. Due to heavy losses and fatigue of soldiers, the Allies could not organize a pursuit, which saved the Prussians from the final defeat. After Kunersdorf, the Russian army, at the request of the Austrian emperor, was transferred to Silesia, where the Prussian army also suffered a number of defeats.

1760-1761

The campaign of 1760 was sluggish. Only at the end of September was a raid on Berlin launched. The first assault on the city, undertaken on the 22nd-23rd of the 5 thous. detachment of General Totleben, ended in failure. Only with the approach to the city of the 12 thousandth corps of General Chernyshev and the detachment of the Austrian General Lassi, the Prussian capital was besieged by the 38 thousandth allied army (of which 24 thousand were Russians), 2.5 times exceeding the number of the Prussian army concentrated near Berlin. The Prussians preferred to leave the city without a fight. On September 28, the 4,000th garrison covering the retreat surrendered. In the city, 57 guns were seized and gunpowder factories and an arsenal were blown up. Because Friedrich was in a hurry to Berlin with the main forces of the army, Field Marshal Saltykov ordered Chernyshev's corps and other detachments to retreat. Berlin itself was not of strategic importance.

The campaign of 1761 proceeded as sluggishly as the previous one. In December, Kohlberg took Rumyantsev's corps.

The final stage. Outcomes

The position of the Prussian king seemed hopeless, but the emperor who replaced the Russian throne at the beginning of 1762, who bowed to the military genius of Frederick II, stopped the war and even concluded an alliance with Prussia on May 5. Along with this, after the destruction of its fleet by the British, France withdrew from the war, having suffered a series of defeats from the British in North America and India. True, in July 1762 Peter was overthrown by order of his wife. She dissolved the Russian-Prussian alliance, but did not continue the war. An excessive weakening of Prussia was not in Russia's interests, as it could lead to Austrian hegemony in Central Europe.

Austria was forced to conclude peace with Prussia on February 15, 1763. The King of Prussia was forced to abandon his claims to Saxony, but retained Silesia. Peace had been concluded in Paris between England and France five days earlier. The French lost their possessions in Canada and India, retaining only 5 Indian cities in their hands. The left bank of the Mississippi also passed from France to England, and the right bank of this river, the French were forced to cede to the Spaniards, and even had to pay the latter compensation for the British ceded Florida.

It is customary in historiography to call the Seven Years War the conflict between Prussia, Portugal, Russia, Britain on the one hand and the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, Sweden, France, on the other.
One of the greatest Britons, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, called the Seven Years War (1756-1763) the "First World War", since it took place on several continents and involved enormous human resources.
The Seven Years' War was also called "the first trench war", because it was then that rapidly erected fortifications, redoubts, etc. were involved on a large scale. During the conflict, they also began to widely use artillery pieces - the number of artillery in the armies increased 3 times.

Causes of the war

Anglo-French conflicts in North America are considered one of the main reasons for the Seven Years War. There was a sharp colonial rivalry between the countries. In 1755, a war broke out between England and France in America, during which indigenous tribes also took part. The British government officially declared war in 1756.

It was the conflict between the French and the British that violated all the alliances and agreements that had developed in Western Europe... Prussia - once a weak state, after the coming to power of Frederick II began to gain its power, thus oppressing France and Austria.
After the war with France has already begun, the British enter into an alliance with a powerful new player in the political arena - with Prussia. Austria, which had previously lost the war to Prussia and ceded Silesia, entered into negotiations with France. In 1755, France and Austria signed a defensive alliance, and in 1756 the Russian Empire also joined this alliance. Thus, Frederick found himself drawn into a conflict against three powerful states. England, which at that time did not have a powerful land army, could only help Prussia with funding.

France, Austria and Russia were not interested in the complete destruction of Prussia, but each of them wanted to significantly weaken the country, and then use it in their own interests. Thus, one can say that France, Austria and Russia were striving to renew the old political picture of Europe.

The balance of enemy forces at the start of hostilities in Europe
Anglo-Prussian side:

Prussia - 200 thousand people;
England - 90 thousand people;
Hanover - 50 thousand people.

In total, the Anglo-Prussian coalition had 340,000 fighters at its disposal.
Anti-Prussian Coalition:

Spain - 25 thousand people;
Austria - 200 thousand people;
France - 200 thousand people;
Russia - 330 thousand people.

The opponents of the Anglo-Prussian side were able to assemble an army with a total number of 750 thousand people, which was more than twice the strength of their enemies. Thus, we can see the complete superiority of the anti-Prussian coalition in manpower at the beginning of hostilities.

On August 28, 1756, the Emperor of Prussia - Frederick II the Great began the war first, without waiting for the moment when his enemies would join forces and march on Prussia.
First of all, Frederick went to war against Saxony. Already on September 12, the Russian Empire reacted to the aggression of Prussia and declared war on that.

In October, the Austrian army was sent to the aid of Saxony, but Frederick defeated it at the Battle of Lobozitz. Thus, the Saxon army was left in a stalemate. On October 16, Saxony surrendered, and its fighting forces were forcibly driven into the ranks of the Prussian army.

European theater of war in 1757

Frederick again decided not to wait for aggression from France and the Russian Empire, but decided to smash Austria in the meantime and throw it out of the conflict.

In 1757, the Prussian army entered the Austrian province of Bohemia. Austria sent 60 thousand people to stop Frederick, but was defeated, as a result of which the Austrian army was blocked in Prague. In June 1757, Frederick lost the battle to the Austrians without taking Prague, after which he was forced to return to Saxony.
The initiative was intercepted by the Austrian troops and during 1757 inflicted several defeats of the Prussian army, and in October of the same year they managed to capture the capital of Prussia - Berlin.

Meanwhile, Frederick and his army defended their borders from the West - from French aggression. Upon learning of the fall of Berlin, Frederick sends 40 thousand soldiers to regain the advantage and defeat the Austrians. December 5, leading the army personally, Frederick the Great inflicts a crushing defeat on the Austrians at Leuthen. Thus, the situation at the end of 1757 brought the opponents back to the beginning of the year, and the military campaigns eventually ended in a "draw."

European theater of war in 1758

After an unsuccessful campaign in 1757, the Russian army under the command of Fermor occupies East Prussia. In 1758, Konigsberg also fell under the onslaught of the Russian army.

In August 1858, the Russian army was already approaching Berlin. Frederick advances the Prussian army to the meeting. On August 14, a battle takes place near the village of Zorndorf. A bloody chaotic battle broke out, and as a result, both armies retreated. The Russian army returned across the Vistula. Frederick led his troops to Saxony.

Meanwhile, the Prussian army is fighting against the French. During 1758, Frederick inflicted three major defeats on the French, which also seriously weakened the Prussian army.

European theater of war in 1759

On July 23, 1759, the Russian army under the command of Saltykov defeated the Prussian army at the Battle of Palzig. Frederick moved on the Russian army from the south and on August 12, 1759, the Battle of Kunersdofr began. Having a numerical advantage, the Austrian-Russian army was able to deliver a crushing blow to Frederick. The king had only 3 thousand soldiers left and the road to Berlin was already open.
Frederick understood that the situation was hopeless. And yet, a miracle happened - due to disagreements, the allies left Prussia, and did not dare to go to Berlin.

In 1759, Frederick asks for peace, but is refused. The Allies intend to completely defeat Prussia next year by taking Berlin.
Meanwhile, England had inflicted a crushing defeat on the French at sea.
European theater of war in 1760
Although the allies had a numerical advantage, they did not have an agreed plan of action, which Frederick II continued to use.
At the beginning of the year, Frederick with difficulty again gathered an army of 200 thousand people and in August 1760, near Lignitz, he defeated the corps of the Austrian army.

Allies storm Berlin

In October 1760, the allies storm Berlin, but the defenders beat off the attack. On October 8, seeing the advantage of the enemy, the Prussian army deliberately leaves the city. Already on October 9, the Russian army accepts the surrender of the capital of Prussia. Then the Russian command receives information about the approach of Frederick, after which they leave the capital, and the king of Prussia, having heard about the retreat, deploys the army to Saxony.

On November 3, 1760, one of the largest battles of the war takes place - at Torgau Friedrich defeats the Allied armies.
European theater of war in 1761-1763

In 1761, neither side was actively fighting. The allies are confident that the defeat of Prussia cannot be avoided. Frederick himself thought otherwise.

In 1762, the new ruler of the Russian Empire, Peter III, concludes the Petersburg Peace Treaty with Frederick and thereby saves Prussia from defeat. The Emperor abandons the captured territories in East Prussia and sends an army to support Frederick.
Peter's actions caused discontent, as a result of which the emperor is thrown from the throne and he dies under strange circumstances. Catherine comes to the throne of the Russian Empire. After the empress recalls the army, aimed at helping Prussia, but does not declare war, adhering to the peace agreement of 1762.

In 1762, the Prussian army, taking advantage of the situation, won four major battles against the Austrians and the French, completely returning the initiative to Prussia.

In parallel with the fighting in Europe, there was a war in North America between the French and the British.
On September 13, 1759, the British won a brilliant victory over the French at Quebec, despite the fact that the enemies outnumbered them. In the same year, the French retreat to Montreal and the British take Quebec - Canada was lost to France.

Fighting in Asia

In 1757-1761, the war continues between France and England on the territory of India. During the fighting, the French suffered a number of crushing defeats. As a result, in 1861, the capital of the French possessions in India surrendered to the onslaught of the British army.
After the victory in India, the British faced a war with the Spaniards in the Philippines. In 1762, the British sent a large fleet to the Philippines and captured Manila, which was defended by the Spanish garrison. And yet, the British did not manage to gain a foothold here completely. After 1763, British troops began to gradually leave the Philippines.

The end of the war was caused by the complete exhaustion of the warring parties. On May 22, 1762, a peace treaty was signed by Prussia and France. On November 24, Prussia and Austria abandoned hostilities.

On February 10, 1763, Great Britain and France signed a peace treaty.
The war ended with the complete victory of the Anglo-Prussian side. As a result, Prussia significantly strengthened its position in Europe and became an important player in the international arena.

France lost control of India and Canada during the war. Russia, on the other hand, gained nothing during the war except military experience. England got India and Canada.

During the fighting, approximately 1.5 million people died, including civilians. Prussian and Austrian sources say about 2 million people.

Secrets of the House of the Romanovs Balyazin Voldemar Nikolaevich

Seven Years War of Russia with Prussia in 1757-1760

After Russia joined the Treaty of Versailles on January 11, 1757, concluded on May 1, 1756 between Austria and France against England and Prussia, Sweden, Saxony and some small states of Germany joined the anti-Prussian coalition, which had strengthened at the expense of Russia.

The war, which began in 1754 in the colonial possessions of England and France in Canada, only in 1756 moved to Europe, when on May 28 the Prussian king Frederick II invaded Saxony with an army of 95 thousand people. Frederick defeated the Saxon and allied Austrian troops in two battles and occupied Silesia and part of Bohemia.

It should be noted that the foreign policy of Russia during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna was distinguished almost all the time by peacefulness and restraint. The war she inherited with Sweden was ended in the summer of 1743 with the signing of the Abo peace treaty, and Russia did not fight until 1757.

As for the Seven Years War with Prussia, Russia's participation in it turned out to be an accident, fatally associated with the intrigues of international politicians-adventurers, which was already mentioned when it came to Madame Pompadour's furniture and the tobacco trade of the Shuvalov brothers.

But now, after the victories won by Frederick II in Saxony and Silesia, Russia could not stand aside. She was obliged to this by the recklessly signed alliance treaties with France and Austria and a real threat to her possessions in the Baltic States, since East Prussia was a border territory adjacent to the new Russian provinces.

In May 1757, the 70,000-strong Russian army, under the command of Field Marshal Stepan Fedorovich Apraksin, one of the best Russian generals of that time, moved to the banks of the Neman River, bordering Prussia.

Already in August, the first major victory was won - at the village of Gross-Jegersdorf, Russian troops defeated the corps of the Prussian Field Marshal Lewald.

However, instead of going to the nearby capital of East Prussia, Konigsberg, Apraksin gave the order to return to the Baltic states, explaining this by a lack of food, large losses and diseases in the troops. This maneuver gave rise to rumors in the army and in St. Petersburg about his treason and led to the fact that a new commander-in-chief was appointed in his place - a Russified Englishman, general-in-chief, Count Vilim Vilimovich Fermor, who successfully commanded troops in the wars with Sweden, Turkey and in the latter war - with Prussia.

Apraksin was ordered to go to Narva and await further orders. However, no orders were followed, and instead, the “Grand State Inquisitor,” the head of the Secret Chancellery, AI Shuvalov, came to Narva. It should be borne in mind that Apraksin was a friend of Chancellor Bestuzhev, and the Shuvalovs were his ardent enemies. The "Grand Inquisitor", having arrived in Narva, immediately inflicted a severe interrogation on the disgraced field marshal, mainly concerning his correspondence with Ekaterina and Bestuzhev.

Shuvalov needed to prove that Catherine and Bestuzhev were persuading Apraksin to treason in order to ease the position of the Prussian king in every possible way. After interrogating Apraksin, Shuvalov arrested him and transported him to the Four Hands tract, not far from St. Petersburg.

Apraksin also denied any malicious intent in his retreat beyond the Niemen and argued that "he did not make any promises to the young court and did not receive any comments in favor of the Prussian king from him."

Nevertheless, he was accused of high treason, and everyone suspected of having a criminal connection with him was arrested and brought for interrogation to the Secret Chancellery.

On February 14, 1758, unexpectedly for everyone, Chancellor Bestuzhev was also arrested. He was first arrested and only then they began to look: what to accuse him of? It was difficult to do this, because Bestuzhev was an honest man and a patriot, and then he was credited with "a crime of insulting the Majesty and because he, Bestuzhev, tried to sow discord between Her Imperial Majesty and Their Imperial Highnesses."

The case ended with the fact that Bestuzhev was expelled from St. Petersburg to one of his villages, but during the investigation, suspicions fell on Catherine, the jeweler Bernardi, Ponyatovsky, the former favorite of Elizabeth Petrovna, Lieutenant General Beketov, and the teacher of Catherine Adodurov. All these people were associated with Catherine, Bestuzhev and the English envoy Williams. Of all of them, only Catherine, as the Grand Duchess, and Ponyatovsky, as a foreign ambassador, could feel relatively calm if it were not for their secret intimate relationship and highly secret relationship with Chancellor Bestuzhev, which could easily be regarded as an anti-government conspiracy. The fact is that Bestuzhev drew up a plan according to which, as soon as Elizaveta Petrovna dies, Peter Fedorovich will become emperor by right, and Catherine will be co-ruler. Bestuzhev himself provided for a special status, which invested him with power no less than that of Menshikov under Catherine I. Bestuzhev claimed the chairmanship of the three most important colleges - Foreign, Military and Admiralty. In addition, he wished to have the rank of lieutenant colonel in all four Life Guards regiments - Preobrazhensky, Semenovsky, Izmailovsky and Konnom. Bestuzhev outlined his considerations in the form of a manifesto and sent it to Catherine.

Fortunately for himself and for Catherine, Bestuzhev managed to burn the manifesto and all the drafts and thus deprived the investigators of the most serious evidence of high treason. Moreover, through one of her most devoted servants - the valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin (remember the name of this person, soon, dear reader, you will meet with him again in more than extraordinary circumstances), Catherine learned that the papers were burned and she had nothing to fear.

And yet the suspicion remained, and Elizaveta Petrovna, through the efforts of the Shuvalov brothers, Peter and Alexander, was notified of the Bestuzhev-Ekaterina alliance. The impulsive and unbalanced empress decided, at least outwardly, to show her displeasure with Catherine and stopped accepting her, which led to a chill towards her and a significant part of the “large court”.

And Stanislav-August remained as before the lover of the Grand Duchess, and there are many reasons to believe that in March 1758, it was from him that Catherine became pregnant again and on December 9 gave birth to a daughter named Anna. The girl was taken to the chambers of Elizaveta Petrovna immediately after birth, and then everything happened, as it did four years ago, when her firstborn, Pavel, was born: balls and fireworks began in the city, and Catherine was again left alone. True, this time at her bedside there were court ladies close to her - Maria Aleksandrovna Izmailova, Anna Nikitichna Naryshkina, Natalya Aleksandrovna Senyavina and the only man - Stanislav-August Ponyatovsky.

Anna Naryshkina, nee Countess Rumyantseva, was married to Chief Marshal Alexander Naryshkin, and Izmailova and Senyavina were nee Naryshkins - the sisters of the Chief Marshal and Catherine's confidants. In the "Notes" Catherine reports that this company gathered in secret, that the Naryshkins and Poniatovsky hid behind screens as soon as there was a knock on the door, and in addition, Stanislav-August went into the palace, calling himself the musician of the Grand Duke. The fact that Ponyatovsky was the only man who found himself at Catherine's bedside after giving birth looks quite eloquent evidence confirming the version of his paternity.

In her Notes, Catherine cites an interesting episode that occurred shortly before giving birth in September 1758: “Since I was getting heavy from my pregnancy, I no longer appeared in society, believing that I was closer to childbirth than I really was ... It was boring for the Grand Duke ... That is why His Imperial Highness was angry at my pregnancy and decided to say once at his place, in the presence of Lev Naryshkin and some others: “God knows where my wife gets her pregnancy from, I don’t know too much, my is it a child and should I take it personally. "

And yet, when the girl was born, Pyotr Fedorovich was glad what happened. First, the child was named exactly as his late mother, the Empress's sister, Anna Petrovna, was called. Secondly, Pyotr Fedorovich received, as the father of a newborn, 60,000 rubles, which, of course, were more than necessary for him.

The girl lived for a very short time and died on March 8, 1759. For some reason, she was buried not in the Peter and Paul Cathedral, which since 1725 became the tomb of the Romanovs' house, but in the Church of the Annunciation of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. And this circumstance also did not escape contemporaries, leading them to the idea of ​​whether Anna Petrovna was the legitimate royal daughter?

And events outside the walls of the imperial palaces went on as usual. On January 11, 1758, Wilim Fermor's troops occupied the capital of East Prussia - Konigsberg.

Then, on August 14, a bloody and stubborn battle followed at Zorndorf, in which the opponents lost only about thirty thousand people killed. Catherine wrote that more than a thousand Russian officers were killed in the battle at Zorndorf. Many of the victims had previously lodged or lived in Petersburg, and therefore the news of the Zorndorf massacre caused grief and despondency in the city, but the war continued, and until it could see an end. Together with everyone, Catherine was worried. Pyotr Fyodorovich felt and behaved in a completely different way.

Meanwhile, on August 6, 1758, without waiting for the trial, S.F.Apraksin suddenly died. He died of heart paralysis, but rumors of a violent death immediately spread throughout St. Petersburg - after all, he died in captivity. The supporters of this version were even more convinced by the fact that the field marshal was buried without any honors, hastily and secretly from everyone at the cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra.

Apraksin died of cardiac paralysis, but why the paralysis occurred, one could only guess. An indirect admission of Apraksin's innocence was that all those involved in the investigation in the Bestuzhev case - and it arose after Apraksin's arrest - were either demoted or expelled from St. Petersburg to their villages, but no one incurred criminal punishment.

Catherine was still in disgrace with the Empress for some time, but after she asked to let her go to Zerbst, to her parents, so as not to feel humiliation and offensive suspicions to her, Elizaveta Petrovna changed her anger to mercy and restored her previous relationship with her daughter-in-law.

And in the theater of hostilities, successes gave way to failures, and, as a result, commanders-in-chief were replaced: Fermor was replaced in June 1759 by field marshal, Count Pyotr Semyonovich Saltykov, and in September 1760, another field marshal, Count Alexander Borisovich Buturlin, appeared. The Empress's favorite flashed with fleeting success - without a fight he occupied Berlin, whose small garrison left the city when the Russian cavalry detachment approached.

However, three days later, the Russians also hurriedly retreated, having learned about the approach to the capital of Prussia by the superior forces of Frederick II. The "sabotage" against Berlin did not change anything during the war. And the decisive factor for its outcome was not a military campaign, but the coming to power in England of a new government, which refused Prussia further financial subsidies.

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