1.1 Natural Tourism Development Factors in Spain

Spain Located in the southwest of Europe and occupies about 85% of the territory of the Pyrenean Peninsula, the southern limb of which is 13 km from North. Africa. Spain It has land borders with France-623 km, Portugal - 1,214 km, Andorra-65 km and English colony Gibraltar -1.2 km. Spain Believe the islands of the Balearic archipelago, located in the Mediterranean, and the Canary Archipelago, located in the Atlantic Ocean near the Western Coast of Africa. Governed by Spain There are Ceuta and Melilla (Morocco) and Veles de la Gomer, Alussenas and Chafarnas.

The territory of the country in the East and the south is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, on the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. Spain It is located at the intersection of important marine and airways connecting Europe with African and American continents. Most of the country are covered with flat plans and mountain ranges around which plains and lowlands are located. The central part of the country is occupied by an extensive plateau of the Mountains with a chain of the Central Cordillers, which consist of Sierra de Guadarram, Sierra de Sierra de Gata. In the north there are Cantabrian Mountains. Pyrenean mountains stretched along the border with France, the Iberian and Catalan Mountains lie in the east. In the south there are mountains of Sierra Moraine and Andalus Mountains. Mount Mulasen Height-3482 M- High Material Point Spain- Located in the Andalus Mountains. Mount Pico de Teid (3710 m) is located on the largest of Canary Islands Tenerife.

There are sets of rivers from which the largest plates, Douro, Ebro, Guadalquivir, Guadiana. The total area of \u200b\u200bthe country is 504,788 square meters. km. Among the Western European countries Spain inferior in the area of \u200b\u200bFrance only.

Relief Spain

After Switzerland Spain- The most mountainous country in Western Europe. Height above sea level, on average, is 660 meters, which is significantly higher than the Middle Eastern value. A large height above sea level is due to the predominant presence of land located at a height from 600 to 1200 meters, which occupy 47% of the country area. In contrast, the plains, the height of which does not exceed 200 meters, occupy only 11% of the territory, and mountainous areas, with a height of more than 2500 meters, are not 1%. For relief Spain An interesting feature is the mosaic of the spread of elements of the relief in the territory. Major mountain arrays Spain Located in close proximity to the coast - the Pyrenean Mountains, forming the endings, on the northeastern tip of the Pyrenean Peninsula, Cordillera Betika, on the southern outskirts, Cantabrian and Galician mountains - in the West and in the north. In contrast to the orographic structure, the outskirts are emphasized by the isolation of the Pyrenean Peninsula, the entire central part occupies an extensive plateau. The average height of the plateau is about 700 m.

In the Pyrenees and Sierra Nevada (Andalus Mountains) there are sections of modern glaciation used as ski slopes, although not too active.

In general, so diverse and often quaint relief determines the aesthetics of landscapes Spain And, of course, is one of the factors of attraction tourists.

Climate Spain

Most of Spain Located in the area of \u200b\u200bthe subtropical Mediterranean climate with a hot dry summer and soft rainy winter (by geographical position- Between 43 and 36 degrees of northern latitude). The originality of the geographic location Spain, alternation of mountains, flatbed and lowlands, the effect of the Atlantic Ocean and the proximity of the "dry" continent of Africa determine the climatic differences in different regions of the country. Especially clearly they can be traced from the North-West on southeast. Due to the mountain terrain of the country, the vertical climatic explanation also also has great importance. The average annual temperature of almost the entire Spanish territory ranges between 14 and 19 C. Above zero. The average temperatures of January vary from 8-10 (C in the northern and middle part to 10- 12 (C in the southern part. The average temperatures of July are the hottest month - reach 18-20 (C in the coastal areas of the North-West and the North of the country and 26 (In the Mediterranean coastal areas. Very sharp contrasts are also characteristic of the amount and distribution of precipitation. Northern and Northwestern regions occupy one of the first places in Europe on the annual amount of precipitation, and the central and southeastern regions are the most arid areas of this Parts of Light. In this regard, the entire territory of the country on climatic and other features is considered to be divided into "wet" Spain and "dry" Spain. The border between them takes place through the Galician array and the Cantabrian Mountains. Annual precipitation in "wet" Spain It averages 900 mm (maximum 3000 mm). On the rest of the country, in the "dry" Spain, The annual precipitation sums, as a rule, does not exceed 500mm, and they fall predominantly in spring and autumn.

Natural resources Spain

By security natural resources Spain Never was a world leader. Due to the specifics of economic development (after all Spain He was predominantly an agrarian country), most of the lands are given to pastures and arable land. Most of the stocks of raw materials and minerals Spain Imports from richer countries (oil and gas mainly from the Persian Gulf countries; coal from the neighboring France). Nevertheless, in some areas of the country (mainly in the south-west and east), the mining of fossils is still developed. Coal, iron ore, lead, copper and mercury - the most important minerals of the country, the developed deposits of which are located on the northern coast of the Atlantic. In a small number of developments, it is mined: uranium, mercury, pyrite, fluorite, plaster, zinc, tungsten, kaolin, potash. Spain Also is the world leader in mining mercury and zinc ore.

Water resources Spain

River Network Spain Good branched. Its base is 5 large rivers. 4 of them carry their waters in the Atlantic Ocean (Tahoe, Guadiana, Douro and Guadalquivar) and only Ebro-in the Mediterranean Sea. All major rivers Spain Take their beginning in the middle of the mountains. The most popular river-ebro, the origins of which begin in the Cantabrian Mountains, and the main tributaries - in the Pyrenees. The average magnitude of the annual flow of EBRO is estimated at 17.5 billion cubic meters. Hydropower resources Spain Scales of Western Europe are very significant. Water energy reserves are estimated at 16.5 million kW. Every year it is possible to produce 58 billion kWh electricity. Most of the hydroresources are concentrated in the northern part of Spain, where, by the way, the main reserves of coal are located. This situation largely determines the placement of large energy nodes in the country. The presence of hydropower resources is a big advantage for the infrastructures of this part of the country, including and for tourist industry Spain.

Vegetable world of Spain

Flora Spain- The richest in Europe: there are up to 8,000 different types of plants on the peninsula. For "wet" Spain Typical broadf forests with an admixture of evergreen breeds in the second tier, juicy rich meadows and dense vessels. Oak, beech, noble chestnut, ash, maple, elm, poplar predominate as part of wood species. Evergreen-stone, felt and other types of oak, seaside pine are mixed with these deciduous species. The richest and thick greenery is covered by the Atlantic slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains and the Galician array. In the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian Mountains, the high-altitude explanation is clearly expressed. In "dry" Spain Forests are small, the vegetation of the Mediterranean type is dominated here, represented mainly by communities of evergreen shrub, McWis, Gariga, as well as half-workers. McVis includes high-ranking shrubs and low trees: wild pistachio, myrth, strawberry tree, juniper, wild olive, Lanenik, and other forests in "Dry" Spain Meet on the slopes of the mountains and along the river valleys. For the most dry, southeastern district of Spain, shrubs Gariga and Herbs Alpha, or "Esparto".

One of the varieties of Garigi - overgrown with a fan dwarf palm-sole wild palm tree in Europe.

Meaningful part of plant communities Spain It is very exotic for residents of many states and therefore is one of the significant factors of attracting foreign citizens here.

Animal world of Spain

Spain Differs in a rather rich animal world. In the north of the Fauna as a whole of the Middle Eastern type, in all other regions of the country, it refers to the Mediterranean North African type. From mammals B. Spain The most numerous: deer, Lan, Kososul, Sulna, Mountain Goat, Caban. Of the major predators, a very small amount of wolf, fox and Spanish lynx, which now lives only in the thickets of the mouth of Guadalquivira. Many types of rodents, hare-rusak, rabbit are very widespread in the country. Bird fauna is considered the richest in Europe. There are many endemic species (Eagle, Filin, cuckoo, woodpecker, etc.). Typical for Spain Redhead keklik, blue forty. The colony of black hawks off the coast of the reservoir Torrekhon on the Tahoe River is considered the largest in the world. In the mouths of the rivers, on reservoirs, in coastal lagoons are numerous colonies of waterfowl: ducks, geese, as well as herds, flamingos and many of the European and North African species arriving here. From the reptiles there are numerous lizards and snakes, in particular, the Mediterranean and Spanish viper, chameleons in the south of the country live.

1.2 Cultural and historical factors for the development of tourism in Spain

Despite the fact that the Pyrenees Peninsula is located on the southern tip of Europe and is almost insulated, it has always supported close ties with the peoples of other areas. This impart aprint to culture Spain, and therefore, on the nature of its cultural heritage.

The first reliable news available on the population Spain, They come from aliens who visited the Pyrenean Peninsula in very long-standing times, and go to the 6th century. BC. From this chronological milestone, the historical characteristic is usually beginning Spain. The period of an ancient history Spain, ends, according to the generally accepted opinion - in the 5th century. AD When the invasion of northern Europe's peoples occurred in Spain. Among the first peoples that settled Spainthere were ibers predetermined an ancient name Spain- Iberia.

In history Spain It is from the 5th century AD. A new period begins, called average centuries, which passed under the sign of the domination of Muslim peoples in this region.

This period is for Spain Ends in 1492, when "Catholic kings" expelled Muslims from these territories. Since 1492, the third period - "New Time" begins. This is the era of rebirth Spain, the era of the heyday of the economy and culture, the era of great geographical discoveries, starting with Columbus and Magellan, and after this, the epoch of the development and seizure of new lands, as a result of which Spain became the largest metropolis of the world.

Last Development Period Spain 1808 are usually counted - since the beginning of the war for independence with Napoleonic France, which have made significant changes to the political regime Spain. The most important event in modern history Spain The overthrow of the fascist regime of Franco and coming to power King Juan Carlos I. Return to democratic values \u200b\u200bgave a new impetus to the country's development.

Spain- This is an amazing combination of various cultures: Celtic, Greek, Phoenician, Roman, Arab, Jewish and Christian. Wherever the traveler is on his way along the roads of Spain, it is waiting for a meeting with the mysterious past, represented by impressive monuments and monuments, silent witnesses of the glory and power of empires of different eras. Spain I experienced the period of Roman dominion, as evidenced by Roman aquedels, elements of antique theaters and arenas, guard towers and defensive buildings, partially survived in those cities, the Romans founded their settlements. Significant trace in culture Spain Left Arabs, whose domination continued almost eight centuries, starting from the 8th century AD. They brought to the Spanish art developed ornamental culture and left a number of magnificent architectural monuments in Mauritan style, among them a mosque in Cordoba (8th century) and the Alhambra Palace in Granada (13-15 centuries). After the returns by the Christians, the land conquered by Arabs, the era begins, marked by the triumph of the Catholic medieval culture. Magnificently preserved Romanesque churches and monasteries, majestic cathedrals and temples, the royal palaces and castles are confirmed, all this remains part of everyday life and symbolizes the inseparable connection of the past and present. In Spanish history, the creativity of the paintings of Greco, Velasquez, Greki and other famous artists, created the outstanding canvas of the Renaissance, are occupied in Spanish History, many of which are stored in the Madrado Museum of Prado. Pablo Picasso and Salvador Dali became the most famous Spanish artists of the twentieth century. The new architectural style-modernism arising at the turn of the 4th and twentieth centuries, found his bright manifestation in the works of the famous Catalan architect Antonio Gaudi, whose unfinished Cathedral of the Holy Family in Barcelona - became a symbol of this city.

1.3 Socio-economic factors for the development of tourism in Spain

Brief characteristic of the economy of Spain

Spain- Industrially developed country. The government consistently exercises a course on the modernization of the country's economy and leveling regional disproportions, based on the stimulation of the private sector, the widespread attraction of foreign capital, restricting prices and salaries, reducing the state budget deficit. Strong positions in the economy Spain Capital of USA, FRG, Great Britain, Switzerland, France. GNP Spain It is 480.3 billion dollars (GNP per capita 14020 dollars). Spain It is a member of NATO since 1982 (but not included in his military structure). Since 1986. Spain- EU member. Member of the Zes since 1988.

Dated January 4, 1999 was an important milestone in the development of the global economy: a single pan-European currency - the euro began its official existence. According to the majority of experts, the introduction into circulation of a single currency will have a positive effect on the development of the European tourism sector, favorable conditions will appear for economic growth and employment. Among the main advantages here is a simplified procedure for the implementation of banking operations, "market transparency", an increase in competition and the quality of the car.

Today in Spain 15 agreements were concluded between the Ministry of Economy and representatives of the Association of Travel Enterprises to address issues related to euros on the territory of the country, as well as the "Code of Application and Euro Action". In particular, it was decided to indicate prices for goods in two monetary units.

The role of tourism in the economy of Spain.

The development factor of the country's economy is the basis for creating tourism in Spain. After all, tourism and everything connected with it is not only natural and historical prerequisites, but also the level of service predetermined by the level of economic development in all its aspects. Tourism in SpainAs a profitable and high-yield industry, has a huge impact on the economy. Spain. Thanks tourismThe priorities have changed in many areas of the national economy, the standard of living of the population. Also, tourism It has an impact on the distribution of working forces and financial flows, on solvent demand for goods and services of tourism in particular. Thanks to tourism Geographical location of the state, his natural climatic Resources and cultural and historical sights are becoming universal blessing. Tourism in Spain Also stimulates the development of other sectors of the economy. For example, increasingly important in Spain Acquires advertising business, mapping and means mass media. Moreover, tourism in Spain It affects the level of development of the country's infrastructure. More and more enterprises of tourism sphere are created, and dozens of thousands of jobs, meaningful financial flows. Unlike the Mediterranean and South Zones SpainIn the northern part of the country, tourism is not so well developed. Nevertheless, local authorities are interested in increasing tourist Threads in these zones and makes everything possible to attract holidaymakers. Influence tourism The economy has some negative sides. One of the most acute problems caused by development tourismis the state of the environment, which is relevant, above all, for the Mediterranean and South Primorsk Spain. The problem is that the coast of these areas is literally overloaded touristsAs a result, recently the authorities of these seaside zones are trying to stimulate an increase in interest. tourists To their internal areas of districts. Also explicit progress in the actions of the authorities SpainI have previously not paid enough attention to the issues of ecology, you can consider the desire to improve the conditions for the content of environmental zones. 5% of the country's territory is taken under the protection of regional government or state. This includes approximately 500 natural parks and reserves. By decision of the EU authorized EU on environmental issues, the area spanish By the 2005 environmental regions should triple. Already B. Spain There are eleven national parks.

Population of Spain

According to 1992 (14.8) population Spain It is 39 million people. At the same time, the average population density is 78 people per square kilometer, that is, one of the lowest in the European Union (only a little higher than in Greece, Ireland and in new members of Es Finland, Norway, Sweden and 5 times lower than in the Netherlands). The uneven distribution of the population in the regions led to a large difference between the regions where different levels of population density are observed. There is a steady trend towards the concentration of the population in the peripheral areas near the coast (mainly Mediterranean coast) and the concentration on the islands (Balearic and Canary). At the same time, a tendency towards reducing the number of people in the inner areas of the country, with the exception of Madrid and some other cities. This is largely due to the development tourist Industry Spain. IN Spain There was a movement of labor from agriculture and (in some other cases) even industry in more profitable service industries tourists. For example, in Malaga (Spanish Province) for the period from 1950 to 1965, the proportion of employed in the services sector increased by 28% to 40%. At the same time, there is a problem of seasonal local population migrations, which is a consequence of seasonality itself. tourism in Spain. For example, in Palma (Balearic Islands), in the number of economically active population in winter, 143 thousand people, in season tourism It increases at the expense of persons employed tourists, about 100 thousand people. The population of Costa-Bravka in the season increases from 2 to 27 thousand people.

Seasonality tourism in Spain- The cause of hidden unemployment (in winter in areas of its distribution). Effects seasonality tourism The most extent experiencing a seaside recreational zone. The season is greatest tourist Activity on the coast Spain It is observed for about four months, from June to September, the maximum load in July and August. In general, B. Spain number tourists In these months, almost exceeds their number during the clutter period. Thus, the structure of the settlement and employment of the population Spain can be attributed to the "positive factors" of tourism development. Such migration of the population to areas where the most developed tourism (Mediterranean coast, Canary and Balearic Islands) shows the interest of the population Spain In further development tourism in Spain. By number of employed tourism in Spain represents the largest industry of the world economy, as all over the world, the same in Spain, providing work for 101 million people or every sixteenth on the globe. Concerning Spain, then, according to 1989 (WTO), the number of employed in tourism in Spain- 980 thousand people. In percentage, this indicator is 10% of the total employment. This is the largest indicator - 10% among Western Europe, where it does not reach 7% (9). This situation is largely consumed due to the interest of the population in tourism in Spain and its development.

Thus, the overall level of economic development Spain and including a high level of infrastructure development (transport, hotel service, catering enterprises, etc.) - a powerful development factor tourist Industry. The developed system of advertising and information services is more promoted, character international tourism in Spain.

The content of the article

SPAIN,Kingdom of Spain, the state in the south-west of Europe, which occupies 85% of the territory of the Pyrenean P-ov. In the 8th century AD Most of the Pyrenean P-Ova was captured by Arabs. In the course of the reconquists, which lasted eight centuries, the Christian kingdoms of Northern Spain dismissed the entire peninsula. In 1492, the Spanish crown took possession of the last stronghold of Muslims - grades. After the opening of America, Christopher Columbus thanks to the flow of gold from the new world, Spain turned into a powerful power, and Spanish culture and language were widespread. In the 17th century The economy of Spain was in decline. At 19 in. Spanish colonies in America rebelled and achieved independence. In the 20th century Spain was ruined by the Civil War of 1936-1939. The country established a totalitarian regime that existed until 1975.

Spain, along with the Baleari and Canary Islands, covers an area of \u200b\u200b504,750 square meters. km. Two coastal cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, are also part of Spain. The mainland Spain borders in the West with Portugal, and in the north with France and Andorra. In the north, Spain is washed by the Biscay Bay, in the extreme northwest and southwest - the Atlantic Ocean, and in the East and Southeast - the Mediterranean Sea.

Spain is an industrialized country, however, according to general economic indicators, it is inferior to leading European countries to the members of the "Big Seven".

NATURE

Relief area.

In Spain, the distance from the north to the south does not exceed 870 km, from the east to the west - 1000 km, and the length of the coastline is 2100 km (including approx. 1130 km fall on the Mediterranean Sea and 970 km - on the Atlantic Ocean and Biscay Bay) . From the border with France to the west to Cape Ortegal Cantabrian Mountains stretch along the seashore; There are several sufficiently large bays in which ports are located. South of Cape Ortegal, the sorrow of the mountains are suitable for the sea, forming the coast rugged by deep bays with sheer cliffs and numerous islands. In the area there are fishing ports of La Coruna and Vigo. In the southwest, from the border with Portugal to the Gibraltar Strait, the coast of low-albele and the swampy coast, here is the only convenient port - Cadiz. To the east of Gibraltar to Cape Palos to the Mediterranean Sea, the foothills of cordillers-penibeetics are closely approaching, coastal plains are absent. But north of Cape Palos fragmented coastal plains, separated by the sorts of mountains. The main ports in the area - Cartagena, Valencia and Barcelona.

Spain is a massive raised plane bearer, complicated mainly by the ancient crystalline rocks in combination with alpine Mountains, formed in Paleogen and Neogene. Among the rocks, layouts, preserves are distinguished by Precambrian crystalline slates and gneissis with numerous granite intrusions. In the era of the Gercinsky Mountation of the Place, the general tectonic raising was tested, and then subjected to the process of folding formation and disjunctive dislocations. During the subsequent denudation, it was leveled to the level of a flat plain, and in Paleogen and neogene was blocked by sedimentary rocks. About 1 million years ago, the knee was again raised to the level of 600 m and acquired a general bias from the northeast to the south-west. That is why such large rivers, as Douro, Tahoe and Guadiana, flow in this direction through the territory of the field to the Atlantic Ocean.

The knee occupies approx. 2/3 of the territory of Spain and Bober high mountains. In addition, large mountain ridges of the Central Cordillera are towering in its central areas (including Sierra de Guadarram with a pinnacle of Penyalara, 2430 m, and Sierra de Grados with the top of Almorza, 2592 m). These mountains separate the plateau of the old and new Castile, drained by the Douro and Tahoe, respectively. The plateau is composed of sedimentary rocks and alluvial sediments and differ exclusively flat and monotonous relief. Only in some places there are dining remains of the oblong form - fragments of the ancient river terraces.

To the south of the new Castilla, Tedalsky Mountains towers (the highest point - Mount Korocho de Rosigaldo, 1447 m), also having a mountaineons. The south is the plateau of Extremadura and La Canci, which are part of the web. The most southern edge of the Sierra Morane place is raised to the height of about 900 m (the highest point is the mountain of Estrella, 1299 m). Sierra Morane is steeply breakdown to the extensive Andalusian lowland, drained R.Gadalquivir. In the tertiary period, marine transgression was distributed in the area and sedimentary rocks were postponed, and alluvial thickness were accumulated in the quarterly period, so the soils are distinguished by very high fertility. The Guadalquivir River flows into the Cadiz Bay; Not far from her mouth there is an extensive wetland territory of the National Park of Donyan.

In the south-east of Spain, the folded mountains of Cordillera-Penibetics with the highest peak of the country - Mount Mulasen (3482 m), crowned with snowflakes and glaciers, which occupy the most southern position in Western Europe.

The Iberian Mountains separate the range from the Aragon Plateau, drained by R. Ebro, and are in terms of a delicate form. In places they exceed 2100 m (up to 2313 m in Sierra del Monkayo). The Ebro River originates in the Cantabrian Mountains, flows to the southeast and cuts over the chain of the Catalan mountains before entering the Mediterranean Sea. Its row is located at the bottom of deep, almost impassable canyons. Ebro's water is intensively disassembled by irrigation, without which it would be impossible to agriculture on adjacent plains.

Low Catalan Mountains (average heights of 900-1200 m, the vertex - Mount Karo, 1447 m) follows 400 km in almost parallel to the Seach of the Mediterranean Sea and actually separate the Aragon plateau from him. Sections of coastal plains, developed in Murcia, Valencia and Catalonia north of Cape Palos to the border with France, are distinguished by high fertility.

From the north, the Aragon Plateau is fought by Pyrenees. They stretch almost 400 km from the Mediterranean Sea to the Biscay Bay and form a powerful irresistible barrier between the Pyrenean P-Own and the rest of Europe. These folded mountains that have formed in the tertiary period, in places exceed 3000 m; The highest peak is the peak anetho (3404 m). Western continuation of the Pyrenees are Cantabrian Mountains, also having a sub-lifestyon. Highest point - Mountain Peña-Neuta (2536 m). These mountains were formed as a result of intensive folding formation, broken up with faults and strongly dissected under the influence of river erosion.

Climate.

Three types of climate are distinguished in Spain: moderate sea in the northwest and north - with moderate temperatures and abundant precipitation throughout the year; Mediterranean in the south and coast of the Mediterranean Sea - with soft wet winters and hot dry summer; Arid continental climate in the inner areas of the country - with cool winters and warm dry summer. The average annual rainfall ranges from more than 1600 mm in the North-West and Western slopes of pyrenees to less than 250 mm on the Aragon plateau and in La Manne. More than half of Spain annually receives less than 500 mm of precipitation per year and only approx. 20% - over 1000 mm. Since the Andalus lowland is opened by Western moisture-mounted winds, which revealed from the Atlantic Ocean, there is much more precipitation there. So, in Seville, the average annual precipitation is somewhat higher than 500 mm. At most parts, precipitation is not enough to grow the main crops, although quite a lot of precipitation falls in the northern part of the new Castile and there are high wheat crops there. Madrid has an average annual precipitation of 410 mm, and it increases significantly in the upper parts of the mountainside in the rope.

Temperatures everywhere, except inland areas, the local areas are generally moderate. In the North-West, the average temperature of January 7 ° C, and August 21 ° C; In Murcia on the east coast, respectively, 10 ° and 26 ° C. Since the south-east coast is protected from the northern winds in the mountains of Cordillery-Betiki, the climate is close to African, with a very dry and hot summer. This is the region of dilution of the chipstick palm, bananas and sugar cane. Winter in the field is cold, often there are severe frosts and even snowy tumans. In the summer there is hot and dusty: the average temperature of July and August 27 ° C. In Madrid, the average temperature of January 4 ° C, and July 25 ° C. Summer the hottest weather keeps in the Andalus lowland area. In Seville, the average temperature of August 29 ° C, but sometimes the temperature in the afternoon rises to 46 ° C; Winters are soft, the average temperature of January 11 ° C.

Water resources.

The main rivers of Spain - Tahoe, Guadiana, Duero and Ebro - originate in the middle of the mountains, so the glacial and snow nutrition plays a minor role for them. But essentially rain food. During the strong rainfold of the river is rapidly filled with water, there are even floods, and in the arid periods, the water level decreases sharply and the river mel. Douro, Tahoe and Guadian shipping only in the lower currents. In the average river currents, there are often cool slopes and thresholds, and in some places they flow into narrow deep canyons, which makes it difficult and increases the use of their water for irrigation. Nevertheless, Ebro water is widely used for these purposes. From the rivers of Spain, only Guadalquivir is shipping at a great long. Seville, located 100 km above the mouth, is a prosperous seaport. Ebro, Duero, Mino and her influx of strong, and also taho are used to obtain hydropower.

Soil.

In the north-west of Spain in the seaside plains and brown forest soils are developed on the seaside planes. The internal areas of the country - old and new Castilla, Iberian Mountains and Aragon Plateau - are characterized by brown soils; In the most dry flags, low-power carbonate gray-brown soils are presented with plots of salt marsh in relief depressions. Series are developed in arid landscapes of Murcia. They are nongeposons and are not sleeping, with irrigation give high yields of fruit and other cultures. Heavy-tier Barros soils on flat ancient alleavial plains are distinguished, especially favorable to cultivating rice.

Flora and fauna.

A variety of climatic conditions - from wet in the north to arid in the south - determines the heterogeneity of the flora and vegetation of Spain. In the north, the traits of similarities with Central Europe are manifested, and in the south - with Africa. Footprints of forest vegetation in Murcia, La Manha and Granada show that in the past, a significant part of Spain was obsessed, but now the forests and gentlemen occupy only 30% of the country area, and only 5% accounts for full-fledged closed trees.

In the north-west of the country, evergreen oak forests grow. In mountain forests, more deciduous types of oaks, along with a beech, ash, birch and chestnas, which is typical of Central Europe. In the inner areas of Spain, small arrays of dry evergreen forests are preserved with a predominance of oak ( QUERCUS Rotundifolia., Q. Petraea.), intermitted with pine forests and shrubs. In the most arid areas of the new Castile, the Aragon Plateau and Murcia there are semi-desert fragments (usually in salt marsh).

In those areas of Southern Spain, where more precipitation falls, especially along the coast, presents typical Mediterranean shrub-herbal communities such as Harrig and Tomillar. For harrigues, the participation of local species of the flock and cornflowers is characterized, for Tomillary - the presence of aromatic lubricate (shrub species of thyme, rosemary, etc.), as well as Lanenik. A special variety of harrigues make up the scattered thickets of dwarf fan palm trees ( Chamaerops Humilis), very characteristic of Andalusia, as well as communities with the predominance of High Grass Alpha, or Esparto ( Macrochloa Tenacissima.), - a hardy xerophyte that gives a strong fiber.

In the fauna of Spain, Central European and African connections are obvious. Among European species, two types of brown bear deserve (large Asturian and smaller, black suit, found in Pyrenees), Lynx, Wolf, Fox, Forest Cat. Deer, hares, squirrels and moles are found. In Spain and North Africa, there is an eagle-burial ground, and blue forty-founded on the Pyrenean Penoya is also discovered in East Asia. On both sides of the Gibraltar Strait there are genes, Egyptian mangone and one type of chameleon.

POPULATION

Ethnogenesis.

The origin of the population of Spain is associated with repeated invasions of different peoples. Initially, Ibra probably lived. In 7th century BC. On the southeast and southern coast of the Pyrenean P-Oov were founded greek colony. In the middle of the 6th century Greeks were crowded with Carthaginians. In 6-5 centuries. BC. The northern and central regions of the peninsula were conquered by Celts. After the victory in the second Punic war (218-201 BC), the Romans were maintained most of the territory of the current Spain. Roman domination continued OK. 600 years. Then recentreated posges. Their state with the capital in Toledo existed since the beginning of the 5th century. AD Before the invasion of Moors from North Africa in 711. Arabs kept power for almost 800 years. Jews, the number of which amounted to 300-500 thousand people, lived in Spain for 1500 years.

Ethnic and racial differences in Spain did not interfere with numerous mixed marriages. As a result, many representatives of the second generation of Muslims were people of mixed blood. After the restoration of Christianity in Spain, decrees were adopted against Jews (1492), against Muslims (1502). These groups had to choose between the adoption of Christianity and Exile. Thousands of people preferred baptism and were assimilated by the Spanish ethnic.

In the appearance of the Spaniards and their culture, Afro-Semitic and Arabic features are strongly pronounced, which gave rise to the winged phrase "Africa begins on the Pyrenees." However, many residents of the North of the country inherited Celtic and Westgoth features - light skin, blond hair and blue eyes. In the southern regions, dark and dark-eyed brunettes are dominated.

Demography.

In 2004, 40.28 million people lived in Spain, and in 1996 - 39.6 million. During the 1970s, the average annual increase in the population was approx. 1%, but later it decreased due to a decrease in fertility and in 2004 amounted to 0.16%. In 2004, the fertility was 10.11 per 1000 person, and mortality - 9.55, the natural population growth was 0.7%. The life expectancy in Muzhin in Spain was 76.03 years old for 2004, and in women 82.94 .

Language.

The official language of Spain is Spanish, often called Castilian. The basis of this Romanesque language is the People's Latin with a significant admixture of vocabulary borrowed from the Moors. Spanish is studied in schools and is used as collaborative residents throughout the country. However, local languages \u200b\u200bare widespread in a number of areas: Basque - in the country of Basque and Navarre, Galician - in Galicia, Catalan - in Catalonia, Valencia - in Valencia (the latter sometimes consider the Castilian dialect). In general, 35% of the country's population uses local languages \u200b\u200band dialects, including more than 5 million Catalan, OK. 3 million Galicians, over 2 million Basque. There is a rich literature in local languages. After establishing a totalitarian regime in 1939, all regional languages \u200b\u200bwere prohibited, and in 1975 they were legalized again.

Religion.

State Religion of Spain - Roman Catholic. About 95% of the Catholics Spaniards. In the mid-1990s, there were 11 archbishops and 52 bishops in the country. There is a small amount of Protestants, 450 thousand Muslims and OK. 15 thousand Judaists.

Urbanization.

After the civil war and especially since the early 1950s, the city began to grow rapidly in Spain. In the period 1950-1970, the number of urban population increased by 2.3% annually, while the number of rural population decreased by 0.2% per year. The biggest growth undoubtedly experienced Madrid, whose population in 1991 exceeded 3 million people. Located in the center of the country, he is a residence of the government, with its enormous administrative apparatus. This is the main zode of the railway. There are many new industrial enterprises and gigantic construction. Barcelona, \u200b\u200blocated on the northeast coast, - the second largest city of Spain, numbering 1644 thousand inhabitants in 1991. In economically, it is the most dynamic city center, with a developed heavy industry and a large port. Valencia (752.9 thousand inhabitants in 1991), which is further southwards on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, is the third largest city in the country. This is a large market for the sale of citrus, rice and vegetables grown in the adjacent area, one of the most intensively developed foci of agriculture in Europe. Seville (683 thousand inhabitants in 1991) - the center of winemaking and the cultivation of olives. On the celebration of a passionate week in this city, guests are flown from around the world.

Per last years Thousands of Spanish peasants stopped growing agriculture and moved to cities in search of higher earnings. At the initiative of the government, large irrigation projects were carried out to increase the productivity of agriculture and funds were allocated for the acquisition of modern agricultural machinery.

POLITICAL SYSTEM

For most of the 19th and early 20 century. Spain was a constitutional monarchy. After the renunciation of the King of Alfons XIII in 1931, the second republic was founded, existed before the beginning of the civil war in 1936. In 1939, the troops of General Francisco Franco defeated the dictatorial regime, which lasted before his death in 1975. During the military dictatorship, independent political Party and trade unions and operated the official state party Spanish Falang, later renamed "National Movement". Free elections were not conducted, and the unicameral parliament - Cortesa - had a limited authority.

Public administration.

After 1975, Spain was in a state of transition from authoritarianism to the modern parliamentary monarchy of the European type. One component of this political system - the official apparatus, the courts, armed forces, the Civil Guard and the rural police are inherited from the dictatorial regime. Another component includes organizational and ideological remnants of the short-lived second republic and reflects demographic changes, economic modernization, democratic political models of Europe. It is represented by parliamentary and electoral systems, political parties, trade unions and other community organizations and groups.

Apparently, the most important binding role in the formation of a modern state-owned device, Spain played a monarchy destroyed in 1931, when under the pressure of the Republicans King Alphonse XIII renounced the throne. The republican form of government in 1939 was replaced by the dictatorial regime of Francisco Franco, which existed to 1975. The successor of Franco became the grandson of Alphonse XIII, Prince Juan Carlos Bourbon-and-Bourbon (r. 1938). Franco was confident that the young prince who studied in all three military academies of Spain, as well as at the University of Madrid, will continue his policies and will retain the authoritarian system created by him. However, becoming in 1975 by the King of Spain, Juan Carlos joined the path of democratic transformations. Juan Carlos after almost 40 years of government decided to renounce the throne in favor of the Son of Prince Asturian Felipe in June 2014.

According to the Constitution, developed by representatives of the main political parties and approved at the 1978 referendum, Spain is a monarchy with a parliamentary form of government. Constitutionally enshrined the unity of Spain, but some regional autonomy is allowed.

The Constitution gives the legislative power of the two-bearet parliament, General Cortes. Most of the authority belongs to the Lower Chamber, the Congress of Deputies (350 members). The bills adopted by them should be submitted to the upper chamber - the Senate (256 members), but the Congress can overcome the Senate veto. Deputies of Parliament and Senators are elected for a period of 4 years - according to the majoritarian system, and the Congress - on the proportional system. All citizens of the country that have reached 18 years have the right to be election.

The Prime Minister is put forward by the head of state - the king and is approved by the majority of parliamentary deputies. Usually the Prime Minister is the leader of the party, which has most places in the Congress of deputies. To form the government, this party can enter into a coalition with other parties.

Congress of deputies can express the distrust to the government and make him resign, but the deputies should chain the candidacy of the next prime minister in advance. Such a procedure excludes the frequent replacement of the government.

Local government.

Long before the establishment of the Franco regime, Spain has already had experience in local and regional self-government. With Franco, these rights were eliminated, and the Central Government carried out power at all levels. After the restoration of democracy, the authorities in the field were provided with significant powers.

The Spanish Constitution comes from the indivisibility of the state, but at the same time guarantees the right to self-government to administrative divisions that have established on the basis of national, regional and historical criteria. Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities that have their parliaments and governments and enjoy broad authority in the field of culture, health, education, economics. In several autonomous communities (Catalonia, Basque, Galicia), the use of local languages \u200b\u200bis legalized, in particular, television has been underway. However, the basks insist on the provision of more complete autonomy, and these requirements in some cases are accompanied by armed clashes with police and terrorist acts. The 17 autonomous communities include the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. In addition, the status of autonomy has the remnants of Spanish colonial possessions - the cities of Ceuta and Melilla on the North Coast of Africa. Autonomous community They are divided into 50 provinces, each of which is managed by its advice. Since 1997, the Councils are subordinated to the governments of autonomous communities.

Higher municipal officials and deputies of local councils are elected direct vote. Members of the local council elect the mayor from their ranks; Usually, the head of the majority party is appointed to this post. Municipal authorities do not have authority to collect taxes and are funded by the Central Government.

Political parties.

National parties, who survived the Dictatorship period of Franco, - Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (ICRP) and the Communist Party of Spain (KPI). Their organizations are preserved underground and in exile, and many members of these parties were persecuted. Frankist Party Spanish Falanga (Later - "National Movement") ceased to exist with the death of the Dictator Franco, but some of the figures of this organization still participate in the political life of the country.

In recent years of life, Franco Prime Minister Carlos Arias Navarro promised to legalize the activities of political organizations. The first of them was the Union of the Democratic Center (IDC), created in 1976 led by Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez. In the same year, King Juan Carlos appointed Suarez Prime Minister. The Government of Suarez did not want to recognize the Communist Party, but still had to adopt the law on the legalization of all political parties in 1977. After that, more than 200 parties were registered (as a result of the 1993 universal elections, representatives of only 11 parties or coalitions were held to parliament, and the elections 1996 - 15).

After the first elections in 1977 the leading parties became the CDC. It was the centered batch that represented middle class and included some politicians and officials of the Franco regime. The CDC also won the national elections in 1979, but in 1982 he lost most of the places in parliament, because he could not cope with the rapid growth of unemployment and terrorism. The attempt of the state coup in February 1981 also weakened the position of the SDC.

The Spanish Socialist Workers Party (ICRP) was founded in 1879 and was a large party in the days of the Second Republic, but was banned with Franco. After 1975, she quickly grew under the leadership of Felipe Gonzalez Marquez and turned into a batch of social democratic sense. The Izrp ranked second in the number of votes in the 1977 and 1979 elections and won the local elections in 1979 in major centers of the country, including Madrid and Barcelona. Having received the absolute majority of places in both chambers of Cortes, in 1982 the ICRP became the ruling party of Spain. She won the elections in 1986, 1989, but in 1993 she had to enter the coalition with the Regional Catalan party convergence and the Union to form the government. ICRPs in early parliamentary elections in March 1996 remained in the minority.

People's Party (NP; until 1989 - People's Alliance) occupies conservative positions. For many years he was led by the former Frankist Minister Manuel Fraga Iribarne. After the transition of the NP leadership in Hosé, Mary Asnara increased the authority of this party among young people. In 1993, she received 141 (ISRP - 150), and in March 1996 - 156 places (ICRP - 141) and became the ruling.

Since the elections 1993, the coalition of the United Left (OL), which the Communists leads to the third place among the parties of Spain. In the elections of 1993 Ol got 18 seats, and in the 1996 elections - 21st place. The Communist Party of Spain (CPI), created in 1920, was underground for 52 years and was legalized in 1977. Since the late 1960s, she conducted a policy independent of the USSR. The CPI enjoys a significant influence in the trade union confederation of working commissions, the most mass in the country.

Regional parties play an important role in Spain. The centered catalan party convergence and the Union (KIS) has had in the mid-1990s by most in the Catalan Regional Assembly. At the national parliamentary elections 1993 and 1996, she gained a significant number of votes and became a coalition partner first with ICRP and then with NP. In the country of Basque, where separatist sentiment has long been manifested, in the mid-1990s several influential parties were formed. The largest of them, the conservative Basque Nationalist Party (BNP), seeks to achieve autonomy by peaceful means. Erie Batasun, or the Party of People's Unity, acts in the Union with an illegal organization this (Basque Fatherland and Freedom), which calls for the creation of an independent Basque state, not denying the need for violent methods of struggle. Regional parties in Andalusia, Aragon, Galicia and the Canary Islands are enjoyed great influence.

Justice system.

Ensuring the rule of law is the function of the Ministry of the Interior, which for this purpose has a paramilitary civilian guard and the police. In addition, there is a municipal police controlling the traffic and maintaining laws on the ground.

In accordance with the Constitution in Spain there is a system of independent courts. Emergency political courts that existed in Franco were eliminated. The jurisdiction of military courts in peacetime applies only to military personnel. The Special Constitutional Court, consisting of 12 judges appointed for a 12-year term, considers the compliance of the regulatory acts of the country's constitution. The highest judicial authority is the Supreme Court.

Foreign policy.

During the dictatorship, Franco Spain was in isolation until 1950, when the UN member countries restored diplomatic relations with Frankist Spain. In 1953, an agreement was concluded on the provision of US military-air and naval databases in Spain in exchange for American military and economic assistance. This agreement was updated and its validity period was renewed in 1963, 1970 and 1982. Since 1955 Spain - UN member.

After World War II, Spain lost almost all of his colonies in Africa. In 1956, the Spanish Morocco was transferred to Morocco, and in 1968, the small Spanish possessions of Rio Muni and Fernando-software became an independent state Equatorial Guinea. In 1976, Spanish sugar was transferred to Morocco and Mauritania temporary administration. After that, Spain had only the cities of Cause and Melilla on the Mediterranean coast of Africa.

After the death of Franco, Spain sought to establish closer ties with Western European countries. From 1982, Spain enters NATO, since 1986 - in the EEC (now EU), since 1989 - to the European Monetary System (EAR). The Spanish government was one of the most active participants in the Maastricht Treaty (1992), which provided for the creation of a political, economic and currency union in Europe. Spain also has close ties with Latin American countries. Traditionally, it supports good relations with Arab States. Relations with the United Kingdom are complicated due to the unresolihood of the status of Gibraltar.

In 1992, the Olympic Games were held in Barcelona, \u200b\u200band in Seville - the World Exhibition in connection with the 500th anniversary of the opening of America. In 1993-1999, Spanish Foreign Minister Javier Solana headed NATO.

Armed forces.

In 1997, the total number of armed forces was 197.5 thousand people; Including 108.8 thousand conscripts. 128.5 thousand people served in the land forces, 39 thousand in the Navy - 30 thousand people in the Air Force. The militarized Civil Guard numbered 75 thousand people.

Until 2002, Military Service is required for all men for a period of 9 months. In 1996, the plans of the gradual transition to the professional army formed on a contract basis were made public. In December 1997, the complete integration of Spain in the structure of NATO was completed.

ECONOMY

Since the 1950s, Spain has become an agricultural country to the country of industrial. In terms of industrial products, it ranks fifth in Europe and the eighth - in the world. In the second half of the 1980s, Spain's economy was the most dynamic in Europe, the average annual increase in gross domestic product (GDP) was 4.1% in 1986-1991. The decline of the global economy in the 1990s caused a sharp decline in GDP growth to 1.1% in 1992. At the same time, the problem of unemployment was aggravated. The accuracy of the unemployed in 1994 reached 22% (the highest indicator for EU countries).

In the 1940s, the Isolationist course of Franco and the boycott of Spain in international trade led to the fact that the economic policy was focused on the development of agriculture. However, by the mid-1950s, the emphasis was shifted: Spain was opened for foreign investment, the economy liberalized, the development of industry was encouraged. In the 1960s, the annual GDP growth rates increased to 7.2% against 4.5% in 1955-1960. In order to increase national income in 1959, direct control of the state in industry was canceled, which led to a rapid increase in imports. The increased trade deficit was compensated at the expense of high revenues from tourism. However, despite this progress, structural disproportions that braked economic development remained. These were outdated methods of agriculture; a large number of industrial enterprises not competitive in the global market; Significant support to the state ineffective industries of the heavy industry, including ferrous metallurgy and shipbuilding, and dependence on oil imports. In the 1970s, the government sought to improve the efficiency and competitiveness of the economy, but the global crisis began in 1973 from the four-time growth of world oil prices, painfully hit Spain.

The desired economic recession coincided with the transition to democracy. The need to maintain political stability exceeded the importance of the decision of economic problems, as a result, the growth of wages was awarded the pace of development of production, and the necessary reforms on the restructuring of the economy were postponed. Inflation and unemployment to 1980 have doubled. In 1982, with the coming to power by the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party, during the Prime Minister Felipe Gonzalez, Marquez was taken a course on the restructuring of industry, investments in infrastructure, modernization of the markets of finance and capital, the privatization of a number of state enterprises and the accession of Spain in UES (1986).

In the second half of the 1980s economic situation Spain improved. The industry restructuring program was aimed at the outflow of resources and labor from the ineffective industries experiencing a decline (shipbuilding, ferrous metallurgy, textile industry), and ensuring new, more competitive enterprises in investment loans and subsidies. By 1987, the planned plan was performed on 3/4: the volume of products in most target industries increased dramatically, and approx. 30% of employed in the least competitive industries (more than 250 thousand people) switched to other industries. Accession to the UES also stimulated the growth of the economy: in the early 1990s, Spain received almost 1/5 of the UNEC Regional Subsidies.

The economic downturn in the early 1990s was partly associated with a balance of payments deficit after 1989. Although the revenues from tourism and reduced this deficit in 1992, especially through the conduct of the Summer Olympic Games in Barcelona and the World Expo-92 exhibition in Seville In this sector of the economy, there were signs of stagnation. Most investments continued to be sent to traditionally privileged areas (Barcelona, \u200b\u200bMadrid) to the detriment of depressive districts (Asturias). The inelastic labor market continued to slow down attempts to reduce the high level of unemployment.

Economic history.

The Spanish economy originated in a few centuries BC, when the peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean founded the colonies on the Spanish coast to control the trading paths that crossed the Pyrenean Persh. After defeating their rivals, Rome in 2 c. BC. I installed domination in this region, which kept for over 600 years. Trade developed between the Metropolis and the Pyrenean P-Ova, the Romans mined minerals and agriculture improved. The collapse of the Roman Empire and the invasion of the barbaric peoples from the north led to a decline of the economy based on colonial trade.

In the 8th century, when most of the Pyrenean P-Oov was captured by Muslims, the Christian kingdoms in the north returned to a primitive natural economy based on the cultivation of wheat and sheep-flowering, which was characteristic of other European countries in the early Middle Ages. In those areas where Maurians dominated, the market economy, which reached the top of development in 10 V. In 13-15 centuries. Muslim states in the Pyrenean Pena gradually lost their power.

In 16-17 centuries. There was a political (but not economic) Association of Spain, as well as the opening of America by Columbus. The flow of gold and silver, which looked from the new light, for a short time, ensured the flowering of the Spanish economy, followed by a prolonged period of inflation and decline ended with the financial collapse of 1680. Partly this happened due to the fact that a significant part of the population was in military service. The rise in prices predetermined the rise in price of Spanish goods, which led to a reduction in exports, and the trade balance became very unfavorable, since domestic goods were replaced by cheaper imported. One of the reasons was a long-term outbreak of religious intolerance, accompanied by the expulsion of Spanish Jews and Muslims who made a huge contribution to the country's economy.

In 18 V. Spain began to absorb technological innovations that became generally accepted in Western Europe. American colonies were an extensive market for the goods expanded by Spanish manufactory produced, which quickly developed in Catalonia and Basque Country. The invasion of Napoleon and the loss of American colonies in the 19th century. Spain plunged in the next period of stagnation. In the 20th century Spain entered the poorly developed industry, and foreign capital mainly dominated in the economy. It was an agricultural country, famous for olives and olive oil, as well as wines. The industry specialized mainly at the production of tissues and processing of metals.

Gross domestic product

(GDP) of Spain in 2002 standing at 850.7 million. dollars, or $ 21,200 per capita (against $ 18,227 in France and $ 9191 in Portugal). The share of industry was 31% of GDP, construction and other services of 65%, and agriculture is 4% (which is comparable to the EU countries such as Portugal and the Netherlands).

Employment.

The number of labor resources of Spain in 1991 was estimated at 15,382 thousand people. More than 41% of female able-bodied ages worked or have been searching for work.

After 1900 in the sphere of employment in Spain there were large structural changes. In 1900, agriculture accounted for 2/3 of all employed, in 1991 - only 1/10. The share of employed in industry during the same period increased from 16% to 33%. In 1991, 11% of women and only 2% of men worked part-time.

In 1991, 1.3 million people worked in rural, fishing, forest and hunting and hunting; in the manufacturing industry - 2.7 million people; in the extractive industry - 75 thousand; In construction - 1.3 million, in the communal services - 86 thousand, at the enterprises of the service sector - 6.4 million.

Even during a sharp economic downturn 1960, the number of registered unemployed did not exceed 1% of the total number of the able-bodied population, although the real number of unemployed was probably twice as high as the number of emigrants increased rapidly. However, since 1982, in the conditions of expanding the competitiveness of the economy, the problem of unemployment aggravated. In 1998, there were 3.1 million unemployed in Spain, or 19% of the working-age population. More than 45% of the unemployed - young people under the age of 25.

Migration processes were intensified in the 1950s - early 1960s. For example, in 1951-1960, Spain left more than 900 thousand people. If at the beginning of the 20th century. The Spaniards emigrated mainly to Latin America, then in the middle of century, the main flow of emigration fell to the countries of Western Europe, where the workers were lacking, and the wage was high. After 1965, many emigrants returned to Spain.

Rural and forestry.

Agriculture has long been an important branch of Spain's economy. Prior to the early 1950s, when the industry was ahead of his development pace, agriculture was the main source of state revenues, and by 1992 its share was reduced to 4%. The share of employed in agriculture continued to fall - from 42% in 1986 to 8% in 1992. Agriculture, the leading industry of agriculture, specializes in the cultivation of barley and wheat. Since the 1970s, the production of fruits and vegetables has grown sharply. In 1992, the volume of grown fruits and vegetables (in the weight expression) exceeded the crop of grain. Many fruits and vegetables are exported mainly to EU countries, and Spain receives great profits from trade in this product.

Only 40% of the lands are processed in the country. About 16% of the cultivated lands are irrigated. Meadows and pastures occupy 13% of the territory, forests and gentlemen - 31% (against 25% in the 1950s). Since over the course of centuries in many localities of the country, the forests are mercilessly burned, the government has implemented a large-scale framework for reforestation. Among forest crops, cork oak are very valued; Currently, Spain ranks second in the world (after Portugal) for the production of cork of cork tree. Primorskaya pine is widely used to obtain a resin and turbidar.

The development of agriculture in Spain is complicated due to a number of serious problems. In many areas of the soil, lowlands are eroded, and climatic conditions are unfavorable for growing crops. Only the northern seaside area of \u200b\u200bSpain receives a sufficient amount of precipitation. In addition, only a small part of the land is irrigated, mainly on the east coast and in the R. Ebro basin. Another problem is that too much land belongs to ineffective latifundias (a very large estate, mainly in the south of the country) and minithunds (very small farms with a put on less than 20 hectares, mainly in the north and east). In Latifundia increased capital invested, and they need modernization, while the miniundy area is too small to conduct a cost-effective economy. Only separate latifunds were mechanized, and there began to grow new cultures, such as sunflower, and introduce modern methods for year-round harvest in greenhouses, which significantly increased the yield of farms in such provinces such as Almeria and Wuelva.

Before the Civil War, the Republican Government was trying to implement a radical land reform based on the expropriation of major land tenurements. However, with Franco, all the attention was directed to the technical modernization of agriculture. As a result, the problem of land distribution remained unresolved; After the victory of the nationalists in 1939, many large land plots were returned to their former owners. Significant achievements include the construction irrigation systems On an area of \u200b\u200b2.4 million hectares of land processed and resettlement of a large number of peasants on irrigated land. In addition, in the period from 1953 to 1972, a program of consolidation of land ownership with a total area of \u200b\u200bmore than 4 million hectares was carried out. In accordance with the third development plan (1972-1975) approx. 12% of all expenses were aimed at introducing progressive methods of rural and fisheries. Adopted in 1971 laws on land reform provided for sanctions against landowners who did not take measures to modernize agriculture in their estates in accordance with the prescriptions of the Ministry of Agriculture and who refused to provide loans to tenant farmers to increase the level of agricultural production or repurchase of leased sites.

Spain holds second place in the world for the production of olive oil and the third - for the production of wine. The plantations of olive trees are mainly in the latifunds of Andalusia and the new Castile, and grapes are grown in the new and old Castile, Andalusia and the eastern regions of the country. Citrus, vegetables and sugar beets are also important agricultural crops. The main grain culture, wheat is grown on the central plateau, using the methods of bearing agriculture.

In the postwar years, great progress was achieved in animal husbandry. In 1991, there were 55 million poultry heads in Spain (23.7 million in 1933), 5.1 million heads of cattle (3.6 million in 1933), as well as 16.1 million pigs and 24 , 5 million sheep. Most of the livestock livestock is concentrated in the wet northern regions of the country.

Fishing.

Fisheries gives less than 1% of Spain's commercial products, but this industry quickly and almost continuously expanded since the 1920s. Fish catch increased from 230 thousand tons in 1927 to 341 thousand tons per year in the period 1931-1934; In 1990, the average annual catch reached 1.5 million tons. A significant part of the fishery is carried out off the coast of the country of Basque and Galicia. Sardin, Heck, Macrel, Anchovs and Cod are most excited.

20-25% of all ulov are recycled every year on canned food. However, the fish conservation industry has been stagnant for some time, as a result of Spain lost sales markets in Portugal, Japan and other countries. Factors such as decline in the import of sheet iron for the production of cans, the rise in prices for olive oil and the reduction of Sardin's ulov, restrained the development of this industry.

Industry.

In 1991, the share of industry accounted for approx. 1/3 of the total release of goods and services. Approximately 2/3 of industrial products were produced by the manufacturing industry, while the mining industry, construction and utilities gave the remaining third.

The development of industry in the 1930s - early 1960s was under state control. Back in 1941, the Institute of National Industry (INI) was established, the State Corporation, which was responsible for the creation of large state-owned enterprises, the control of the private industry and the conduct of protectionist policies. Since 1959, the economy has become somewhat more open, and private enterprises have been assigned a leading role in the development of industry. The functions of the Ini were limited to the creation of enterprises in the public sector of the economy. As a result, the growth rate of the industry has increased, which lasted until the beginning of the 1970s. After 1974, the inefficient public sector of the industry entered the lane experienced a deep crisis.

The Government of the ISRP, who came to power in 1982, sought to reorganize the Ini, in whose system, 7% of industrial workers were occupied, including 80% of employed in shipbuilding and half-employed in the mining industry. The measures taken included the privatization of many enterprises. After 1992, Ini broke up into two groups: Inis (Ini-Limited), consisting of profitable or potentially profitable state firms and not funded from the state budget; and Inis, who controlled non-profit firms (some of them were sold to the private sector or abolished). Other government firms, especially specializing in the production of steel and coal production, in the 1990s became small, but, since many thousands of people were occupied there, it was assumed that the termination of their activities and the abolition of state subsidies would be made gradually.

Spain's accession to the UES in 1986 stimulated the inflow of foreign investment in industry. This allowed to modernize many enterprises and transfer the most part of the Spanish industry in the hands of foreign investors and corporations.

Manufacturing industry.

Many manufacturing industries have clear geographic location. Such an important historically established industry, like the textile industry, is concentrated in Catalonia, especially in Barcelona. The main center of ferrous metallurgy is a country of baskov with a center in Bilbao. In 1992, 12.3 million tons were paid, which exceeded the level of 1963 almost 400%. The Spaniards have achieved great success in the automotive industry and the cement industry. In 1992, 1.8 million passenger cars were produced, 382 thousand cargo vehicles and 24.6 million tons of cement. The volume of industrial production has decreased in 1991-1992 as a result of a global recession in all industries, except for energy. In the early 1990s, such industries such as food and tobacco (16% employed) were allocated in Spain. Metallurgy and mechanical engineering (11%); textile and sewing (10%); Production of transport equipment (9%).

Mining industry.

Spain has rich copper deposits, iron ore, tin and pyrite with high copper, lead and zinc. Spain is one of the largest leaders and copper producers in the EU, despite the fact that the volume of production of most metals, including copper, lead, silver, uranium and zinc, is gradually decreasing from 1985. Spain's coal industry has long turned into an ineffective and non-efficient industry.

Energy.

The dependence of Spain from the import of energy carriers gradually increased, and in the 1990s, 80% of energy consumption was provided at the expense of this source. Although from the beginning of the 1960s, several oil deposits were found in Spain (in 1964 oil was found 65 km north of Burgos, and in the early 1970s - near the ampos in the Ebro Delta), the use of domestic energy sources is not encouraged. In 1992, in the general balance of electricity production, almost half accounted for local coal and imported oil, 36% - to the share of nuclear fuel and 13% - to the share of hydropower. Due to the low energy potential of the Spanish rivers, the role of hydropower was strongly reduced (in 1977 it gave 40% of the generated electricity). Due to the presence of large uranium reserves, a plan for the development of atomic energy was developed. The first NPP was launched in 1969, however, in 1983, a ban on the construction of new NPPs was introduced on environmental reasons.

Transport and communication.

Internal transport system Spain has a radial structure with a large number of main roads and railway lines converging in Madrid. The overall length of the railway network is OK. 22 thousand km, of which 1/4 of electrified (1993). The main lines use a wide range; Local lines that make up 1/6 length from the entire network, have a narrow rut. In the late 1960-1970s, Spain's railways were significantly upgraded: the rolling stock was updated, the rail pillow and the canvas are improved, and steep turns and descents are decorated. In 1987, the implementation of a 13-year-old plan for the development of the railway communication began. In 1993, thanks to the subsidies from the EU, the first high-speed passenger line Madrid - Cordoba - Seville was beaten, and then the branch of Cordoba - Malaga.

Spain's road network is 332 thousand km, of which 2/5 - with a solid coating. In the last decade, car park sharply increased. In 1963, 529.7 thousand passenger cars and 260 thousand cargo (including tractors) were numbered in Spain. By 1991, the corresponding figures reached 12.5 million and 2.5 million cars.

Spain's merchant fleet in 1990 consisted of 416 vessels with a total displacement of 3.1 million gross-register tons. The main seaports are Barcelona, \u200b\u200bBilbao and Valencia.

In Spain, there are two state airlines - "Iberia" and "Aviako", as well as a number of small private airlines. Iberia company serves flights to Latin America, USA, Canada, Japan, North Africa and Europe, as well as domestic flights. The most downloaded is the airport of Palma on O. Malorca. Other major airports are located in Madrid, Barcelona, \u200b\u200bLas Palmas (on Agran Canaria), Malaga, Seville and on O.Terife.

Domestic trade.

The internal trade accounts for approx. 17% of all the goods and services of the country. However, despite the relatively large importance of domestic trade, the movement of goods from manufacturers to consumers remains one of the most weak units of the economy. The government is making such measures as the construction of supermarkets and wholesale markets, but still remains a sharp imbalance between a very extensive retail network of trading and a narrow wholesale system.

International trade.

Energy (mainly oil), machines and transport equipment, ferrous metals, chemical products and textile products prevail in imports. In exports, cars, tractors, mopeds, machines and electrical appliances are highlighted; They are followed by the products of ferrous metallurgy and chemical industries, fabrics and shoes. Food is less than 1/5 Spanish exports, and half falls on fruits and vegetables; An important place is occupied by fish, olive oil and wine. Main trading partners - EU countries (especially Germany and France) and the United States.

In the foreign trade of Spain there is a deficit (in 1992 - $ 30 billion). Partially it is covered by proceeds from tourism. In 1997, when 62 million tourists visited the country (in 1959 - only 4 million), these revenues amounted to 10.5% of GDP

The total volume of foreign investment in the Spanish economy in 1991 reached $ 27.6 billion (their share in industry is especially large).

Banking.

After reforms, new commercial banks were opened. The Ministry of Finance could effectively monitor the credit system, which answered the course aimed at promoting investments. The Bank of Spain was turned into a central bank, which acts as an executive body for the implementation of the state monetary and credit policy. He has broad authority on inspection and control of private banks. Special organizations have been created to control the credit system, which used controls such as regulation of interest rates, buying and selling government securities.

In 1988, Spain announced that for the first time after 1978, the government approved the creation of new banks with state capital. At that time, 77 savings banks existed, in which 43% of all deposits were stored. In 1991 there were approx. 100 private and commercial banks.

Monetary unit of Spain - Euro.

The state budget.

The state sector of the Spanish economy was largely responsible for continuing inflation. Significant budget deficit arises at times, and then the government takes large loans for its coverage. The total expenditures in 1992 were $ 131.9 billion. Dutch coverage was OK. 14% of all expenses, healthcare - approx. 12%, education and social work - 7% and military spending - 5%. Revenues were equal to $ 120.7 billion. Value-added tax gave 39%, income taxes - 38%, taxes on oil imported - 12%, and taxes on corporate income - 10% of the entire amount of government revenues. In 1997, Spain's public debt was up to 68.1% of GDP.

SOCIETY

Customs.

His leisure Spaniards spend mostly outside the house. Friends and relatives are often found in cafes and bars, talking over a cup of coffee, a glass of wine or beer. Many cafes have their regular customers, and some of them are going to the public of a certain political orientation. Toptulia, or a friend party in a cafe is not just a custom, but a lifestyle element. However, the increased popularity of television in Spain led to the weakening of the usual forms of communication.

Women in Spain find all greater rights. Many of them, including married, work, and this is no longer an exception even in the medium of the highest classes. Spanish women in marriage retain their maiden names. In the wealthy layers, the marriage society usually conclude at a later age. In the mid-1990s, Spanish women had the lowest fertility coefficient in the world (1.2 child per woman). In the mid-1980s, a law on birth control was adopted, allowing abortion in some cases (for example, after rape, in the influence and in danger of childbirth for the physical or mental state of a woman).

Clothes, food and dwelling.

Previously, the Spaniards rarely wore shorts, T-shirts and other types of sportswear, but the situation has changed since the 1960s, when the flow of foreign tourists hurried to Spain.

Usually in the middle of the day in Spain there are dinner, and lunch ends with a sest - afternoon sleep. Dinner very late, sometimes at 10-11 pm. After the work, the Spaniards go to chat and eat tapas, pieces of smoked meat, seafood (crabs, lobs), cheese or stew vegetables. Spaniards consume more fish per capita than residents of other EU countries. Meat consumption, previously extensive luxury for most families, has increased significantly in recent years. The food diet is complemented by potatoes, beans, Turkish peas and bread.

Despite mass construction, in Spain still lacks housing, especially in large cities. In the 1980s, the rental for housing has sharply increased. Many families live in close overpopped apartments, and young people often remain with their parents, are not able to purchase their own housing.

Religion in the life of society.

Catholicism has the status of state religion, and 30% of schoolchildren are trained in Catholic schools. According to the 1966 law, freedom of religion and the right of religious minorities publicly send religious rites and contain confessional organizations. Previously, the small Protestant and Jewish communities were forbidden to have their own schools, to prepare the clergy, to commit worship in the army and publish newspapers. Currently, the attitude of many Spaniards to religion is quite formal. Muslim is revived in Andalusia.

Social Security.

The state, especially through trade unions, provides social security, including subsidies to low-income families and pensions to the elderly, free medical care and unemployment benefits. In 1989, in accordance with the pan-European practice, paid pregnancy and care for newborns was extended to 16 weeks.

Culture

Literature.

The beginning of Spanish literature on Castilian language put a great monument of Spanish heroic epic Song about my side (OK. 1140) On the exposure of the Hero's reconquists Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, nicknamed Sid. On the basis of this and other heroic poems in the Epoch of early Revival, the Spanish Romance is formed - the most famous genre of Spanish folk poetry.

The origins of Spanish poetry stood Gonzalvo de Berso (approx. 1180 - Ok. 1246), the author of religious and didactic works, and the founder of the Spanish prose is considered to be the King of Castile and Leon Alphonse X Wise (the years of the Board 1252-1284), who left a number of historical chronicles and Treats. In the genre of art prose, his undertakings continued infant Juan Manuel (1282-1348), the author of the novel Count Lubanor (1328-1335). The largest poet of the initial period of Castilian literature was Juan Ruis (1283 - Ok. 1350), created Book of Good Love (1343). The top of the medieval Spanish poetry was the work of the penetrated Lyrics of Jorch Manrique (approx. 1440-1479).

The era of the early rebirth (the beginning of the 16th century) was noted by the Italian influence, the conductor of which was Garcilasila and De La Vega (1503-1536), and the flourishing of the Spanish knightly novel. The "golden age" of Spanish literature it is customary to count the period from the middle 16 to the end of the 17th century, when the Lope de Rooda was created (between 1500-1510 - approx. 1565), Lope de Vega (1562-1635), Pedro Calderon (1600-1681) , Tirsco de Molina (1571-1648), Juan Ruisa de Alarcon (1581-1639), Francisco Kesvedo (1580-1645), Louis Gonong (1561-1627) and, finally, Miguel de Cervantes Saoveaven (1547-1616), author immortal Don Quixote (1605–1615).

Throughout 18 and most of the 19th century. Spanish literature was in deep decline and was engaged in predominantly to the imitation of French, English and German literary samples. Romanticism in Spain represent three large figures: Esseist Mariano Jose de Larra (1809-1837), the poet of Gustavo Adolfo Becker (1836-1870) and Prose Benito Perez Galdos (1843-1920), the author of numerous historical novels. Leading positions in the literature 19 in. occupies the so-called. Costumebrich - image of life and morals with a focus on local flavor. Naturalistic and realistic tendencies manifested themselves in the work of Emilia's novelists Pardo Basan (1852-1921) and Vicente Blasko Ibanes (1867-1928).

Spanish literature survived another rise in the first half of the 20th century. (so-called "The second golden age"). The revival of national literature begin the writers of the "Generation of 1898", to which Miguel de Unomuno (1864-1936), Ramon Del Valle Inclan (1869-1936), Baroha Pio (1872-1956), Asorin (1874-1967); Nobel Prize Laureate (1922) Hasinto Benavent Mature: 1866-1954; Poets Antonio Machado (1875-1939) and the Laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature for 1956 Juan Ramon Jimenez (1881-1958). Following them, the literature entered a brilliant Pleiad Poets TN. "Generations of 1927": Pedro Salinas (1892-1951), Jorge Gielin (r. 1893), Vicente Aleksandra (1898-1984), who received the Nobel Prize in 1977, Rafael Alberti (r. 1902), Miguel Hernandez (1910-1942 ) And Federico Garcia Lorca (1898-1936).

The coming to power of Frankists tragically broke the development of Spanish literature. The gradual revival of the national literary tradition begins in 1950-1960s Kamilo Jose village (1916), the laureate of the Nobel Prize for 1989, the author of the novels Family Paskoal Duarte (1942), Hive (1943) and others; Anna Maria Matuto (1926), Juan Pigsolo (1928), Louis Pigsolo (1935), Miguel Delibes (1920), Alfonso Sastern playwrights (1926) and Antonio Buero Vallejo (1916), Poet Blas de Otero (1916-1979) After the death of Franco, there is a significant revival of literary life: new prozhaiki (Jorge Semprun, Carlos Rojas, Juan Mars, Eduardo Mendoza) and poets (Antonio Colinas, Francisco Brinze, Carlos Sahagun, were released on the literary arena).

Architecture and visual art.

Arabs brought to the Spanish art developed culture of the ornament and left a number of magnificent architectural monuments in Mauritan style, among them a mosque in Cordoba (8th century) and the Alhambra Palace in Granada (13-15 centuries). In 11-12 centuries. In Spain, a romantic style is developing in architecture, whose wonderful monument is the majestic cathedral in the city of Santiago de Compostela. In the 13th - the first half of the 15th century. In Spain, as in all Western Europe, a gothic style is formed. Spanish gothic often borrow Moorish features, as evidenced by the majestic cathedrals in Seville, Burgos and Toledo (one of the largest in Europe). A special artistic phenomena is the so-called. The style of "Mudjar", which has developed as a result of a merger in the architecture of the elements of Gothic, and later Renaissance with the Moorish heritage.

In the 16th century Under the influence of Italian art in Spain, the School of Manherism is a school: its prominent representatives were the sculptor Alonso Berruze (1490-1561), the painters Luis de Morales (approx. 1508-1586) and the Great El Greco (1541-1614). The founders of the artist of the court portrait were the famous painters Alonso Sanchez Coelho (approx. 1531-1588) and his student Juan Patoch de la Cruz (1553-1608). In a secular architecture of 16 V. The ornamental style of "Platereske" was established, replaced at the end of the century with a cold style "Erressko", the sample of which is the monastery-Palace of Escorial near Madrid, built in 1563-1584 as a residence of the Spanish kings.

The "golden age" of Spanish painting is called 17 centuries, when the great artists Huspé Ribera (1588-1652), Bartoloma Esteban Murillo (1618-1682), Francisco Surbaran (1598-1664) and Diego de Silva Velasquez (1599-1660). In architecture discreet "Erresco" in the second half of the 17th century. Replaced with a redundantly decorative style "Churrygursko".

The period of 18-19 centuries. In general, it is characterized by the decline of Spanish art, closed in imitative classicism, and later in the surface crutumbris. Against this background, the work of Francisco Goya (1746-1828) is especially vividly distinguished.

The revival of the Great Spanish tradition occurs in the first half of the 20th century. The new ways in world art were laid the original architect Antonio Gaudi (1852-1926), which was called the "genius of Modern", the namaster and a bright representative of surrealism in painting Salvador Dali (1904-1989), one of the founders of Cubism Juan Gras (1887-1921), Abstractionist Juan Miro (1893-1983) and Pablo Picasso (1881-1973), contributed to the development of several areas of contemporary art.

Music.

The flourishing of Spanish musical culture, especially in the genre of church music, began in the 16th century. The leading composers of that era were the Master of Vocal Polyphony of Cristobal de Morales (1500-1553) and his student Thomas Luis de Victoria (approx. 1548-1611), nicknamed "Spanish Palestrin", as well as Antonio de Cabstone (1510-1566), famous for essays For harpsichord and organ. At 19 in. After a long era of stagnation, the initiator of the revival of the National Musical Culture was Felipe Pedrole (1841-1922), the founder of the new Spanish composer school and the creator of modern Spanish musicology. At the end of the 19th - early 20 century. Spanish music receives European fame due to such composers as Enrique Granados (1867-1916), Isaac Albehenis (1860-1909) and Manuel de Falla (1876-1946). Modern Spain gave such world famous opera singers like Placido Domingo, Jose Carreras and Montserrat Caballe.

Cinema.

The most famous from the Spanish filmmakers Luis Benuel (1900-1983) back in 1928, together with Salvador, Dali took his first surreal film Andalusian dog. Benuel was forced to leave Spain after the civil war and settled in Mexico City, where he created famous movie cornocartins Exterminating angel (1962), Daily beauties(1967), Modest charm of bourgeoisie (1973) and What prevents the cherished goal (1977). In the afurnkist period, several filmmakers appeared in Spain, who gained fame both in their homeland and abroad. These include Carlos Sara, Pedro Almodovar ( Woman on the verge of nervous breakdown, 1988; Kika, 1994) and Fernando Truway ( Beautiful era, 1994) who contributed to the consolidation of the world's fame of Spanish cinema.

Education.

School training is mandatory and free aged from 6 to 16 years, and about a third of students attend private schools. In Spain, more than 40 universities; The largest are universities of Madrid and Barcelona. In 1992, 1.2 million students were trained in universities, 96% of them are at state universities. In Spain, 4.3% of GDP was spent on education in 1995.

Cultural institutions.

Prado Museum in Madrid, founded in 1818, has a richest collection of Spanish painting until the mid-19th century. Here are masterpieces of such outstanding masters, like Velasquez, Goya, Murillo, Ribera and Surbaran. In addition, the work of prominent Italian and Flemish artists is very fully represented. The Prado Museum collection successfully complements the collection of the Tissan Borneis Museum, including the masterpieces of Western painting 19-20 centuries.

The National Library in Madrid has a magnificent collection of books, and in the archives of the Royal Council on Indium Affairs in Seville, valuable documents on the history of reconquists and the Spanish colonial empire are stored. Barcelona hosts the archive of the Aragon Royal House.

The Spanish Institute is engaged in the promotion of the development of art and science. Its structure includes founded in 1713 Royal Academy of Spanish, Royal Academy of History, Royal Academy fine arts San Fernando and Royal Academy of accurate, physical and natural sciences, spiritual and political sciences, medicine, jurisprudence and pharmacology. The activity in the field of culture is engaged in the literary society of Ateney in Madrid.

Print.

Every year, several thousand books are published in Spain. 120 daily newspapers with a total circulation of almost 3.3 million copies. The most popular - independent newspaper "PAIZ", followed by "ABC", "Vangaardia", "DIARIO-16", "Mundo", etc.

Rest and sport.

At night, the ideas of Spanish music and dances are arranged in the cafe and bars; Andalus kant flamenco often sound. Colorful folk festivals, fairs and religious holidays are held in different parts of the country.

In Spain, the battles of bulls are retained - Corrida. A favorite sport is football. Youth also plays in the peil, or the Basque ball. In the south of the country, large audiences collect cock bats.

HISTORY

The name "Spain" - Phoenician origin. The Romans used it in a plural (Chispaniae) to designate the entire Pyrenean P-Ova. In Roman time, Spain first consisted of two, and then from five provinces. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, they were combined under the authority of the Westpreski, and after the invasion of the Moors in 711 AD. On the Pyrenean Pena there were Christian and Muslim states. Spain as a politically holistic education arose after the combination of Castile and Aragon in 1474.

Primitive society.

The most ancient traces of the person's stay are found on the Nizhneopalolithic parking lot in Torrahlba (prov. Soria). They are represented by Rubils of the Ranneashelsky type together with the skulls of the southern elephant, the bones of the rhinoness of the measurement, Etruscan rhino, the horses of the wall and other thermo-loving species of animals. Nearby, in the valley of R.Mansanares near Madrid, the more advanced tools of the middle Paleolithic (mousti) were found. Primitive people were probably migrated through the territory of Europe and reached the Pyrenean P-ov. Here in the middle of the last glaciation developed a LatePalieolytic culture Solutre.

At the end of the last glaciation on the territory of the central and southern France And Northern Spain existed Madelene culture. People were engaged in hunting on reindeer and other cold-grade animals. They made cutters, seas and scrapers from silica and sewed clothes from the skins. Madelene hunters left on the walls of the cave images of fishing animals: bison, mammoths, rhinos, horses, bears. The drawings were applied with sharp stone and painted with mineral paints. Especially known drawings on the walls of the cave Altamira near Santander. The main findings of the tools of Madelene culture are confined to the northern regions of the Pyrenean P-Ova, and only individual finds are made in the south. The flourishing of Madelene culture, apparently, must be dressed by time from 15 thousand to 12 thousand years ago.

In the Caves of East Spain, original images of people are preserved during hunting, which resemble rock paintings in central sugar. The age of these monuments is difficult to install. It is possible that they were created for a long period.

As the climate improves in the Mesolite, cold-grade animals died, and the types of stone guns changed. An Azil culture, replacing Madlena, was characterized by microlic stone inventors and painted or engraved pebbles with drawings in the form of strips, crosses, zigzags, lattices, stars, and sometimes resembling stylized figures of people or animals. On the northern coast of Spain, in Asturias, groups of collectors that fed mainly with mollusks appeared somewhat later. This determined the nature of their guns intended for the separation of shells from the walls of coastal rocks. This culture was named Asturian.

The development of weaving baskets, agriculture, cattle breeding, the dwelling device and other forms of social organization and the consolidation of traditions in the form of laws are associated with the Neolithic Epoch. In Spain, neolithic axes and ceramic products first appeared on the southeastern coast next to a bunch of kitchen garbage, dating from about 2500 years BC. Perhaps, by this time include the most ancient settlements of Almeria with defensive stone shafts and Rips filled with water. Important occupations of the population were agriculture, hunting and fishing.

In the III millennium BC. Numerous fortified urban settlements have already existed, surrounded by fields where grain crops were grown. Large rectangular or trapezoidal stone rooms were used as a tomb.

In the II millennium BC. Thanks to the discovery of bronze, metal guns appeared. At this time, the fertile valley of the R. Guadalquivir, and the center of culture moved in the western direction, becoming the basis of the Tartesian civilization, possibly comparable to the rich region of Tarshish, which was known to the Phoenicians. This culture also spread to the north to the Valley of R. Ebro, where he laid the beginning of the Greco-Iberian civilization. Since then, this territory was densely populated by tribullic communities, which were engaged in agriculture, mineral mining, production of pottery and various metal guns.

In the early I millennium BC. The waves of the invasions of Indo-European peoples, mainly Celts rolled through the Pyrenees. The first migration was not beyond the limits of Catalonia, but the following reached Castile. Most new aliens preferred wars and put cattle, and not to engage in agriculture.

Migrants completely mixed with the local population in the area between the upper reaches of Douro rivers and Tahoe, where archaeologists have discovered traces of more than 50 settlements. All this area was called Celtiberia. In the event of an attack of enemies, the Union of Countiberian tribes could set up to 20 thousand soldiers. He had a strong resistance to the Romans in the defense of his capital of Nundania, but the Romans still managed to win.

Carthaginian.

In the early I millennium BC. Skilled navigaters, the Phoenicians reached the southern coast of the Pyrenean P-Ova and founded there shopping center Gadir (Cadiz), and the Greeks settled on the east coast. After 680 BC. Carthage became the main center of the Phoenician civilization, and Carthaginians established a trading monopoly in the Gibraltar Strait. On the east coast, Iberian cities were founded, reminding the Greek cities-states.

Carthagean traded with the Tartias Federation in the Valley of the R. Gwadalquivir, but practically did not attempt for its conquest until they were defeated from Rome in the 1st Punish War (264-241 BC). Then the Carthaginsky military leader Hamilkar created the Punic Empire and transferred the capital to Cartagena (New Carthage). His son Hannibal at 220 BC They attacked the Sagunt, the city that was protected by Rome, and in the next war, Carthaginians invaded Italy, but in 209 the Romans seized Cartagena, passed through the territory of all Andalusia and 206 forced Gadir to surrender.

Roman period.

During the war, the Romans established full control over the east coast of the Pyrenean P-Oov (the so-called near Spain), where they settled the Union with the Greeks, providing them with power over the Carthaginian Andalusia and the less well-known internal areas of the peninsula (so-called Far Spain). Communted in the valley of R. Ebro, Romans in 182 BC. Winned over Celtiberian tribes. In 139 BC Luisitans and the Celts were conquered, the R. Taho valley, the Romans of the Romans entered the territory of Portugal and posted their garrisons in Galicia. The lands of Cantabra and other tribes of the northern coast were conquered between 29 and 19 BC.

To 1 c. AD Andalusia experienced strong Roman influence, and local languages \u200b\u200bwere forgotten. The Romans laid the network of roads in the inside of the Pyrenean P-Ova, and the local tribes that had resisted were resettled in remote areas. The southern part of Spain turned out to be the most profitable of all provinces. She gave the first provincial consul, the emperors of Trajan, Adriana and Feodosius the Great, the writers of Marciala, Quintilian, the Sequec and the poet Lukan. In such major centers of Roman Spain, such as Tarracon (Tarragona), Italik (near Seville) and Emerit (Merida), monuments, arena, theaters and hippodrome were constructed. Bridges and aquedels were erected, and trading in metals, olive oil, wines, wheat and other goods was actively carried out (especially in Andalusia).

Christianity penetrated Spain through Andalusia in 2nd. AD, and 3 in. The main cities already existed Christian communities. We reached us about the harsh harassment of early Christians, and the documents of the Cathedral held in or Beris near Granada OK. 306 indicate that christian church There was a good organizational structure before the baptism of the Roman emperor Constantine in 312.

MIDDLE AGES

In Spanish historiography, a peculiar representation of the Spanish middle ages has developed. Since the days of Italian humanists, the Renaissance has established a tradition to consider the invasion of the barbarians and the fall of Rome in 410 AD. The starting point for the transition from the ancient era to the Middle Ages, and the Middle Ages itself was considered as a gradual approach to the Renaissance Era (15-16 centuries), when an interest in the culture of an ancient world was awakened. When studying the history of Spain, not only crusades against Muslims (Reconquiste), which lasted several centuries, but also the fact of the long-term coexistence of Christianity, Islam and Judaism on the Pyrenean Penoye. Thus, the Middle Ages in this region begin with the moment of Muslim invasions in 711 and end in the capture of Christians of the last Ostlota Islam, the Grandensky Emirate, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and the opening of the new light by Columbus in 1492 (when all these events occurred).

Westgoth period.

After the invasion of Visigoths in Italy in 410, the Romans used them to restore order in Spain. In 468, their king Eirich raised his adherents in Northern Spain. In 475, he even announced the earliest written set of laws (Codex Eirich) in states formed by Germanic tribes. In 477, the Roman Emperor Zenon officially recognized the transition of all Spain to the power of Eirich.

Westges accepted Arianism, which was convicted as heresy at the Nice Cathedral in 325, and created the Cast of Aristocrats. Their ill-treatment of the local population, mainly by Catholics in the south of the Pyrenean P-Oov, was the reason for the intervention of the Byzantine troops of the Eastern Roman Empire, which remained in the southeastern regions of Spain to 7 V.

The king of Ataanagilde (the years of the Board of 554-567) made Toledo's capital and dismissed Seville by the Byzantines. His successor, Levovigild (568-586), took 572 Cordovo, reformed the laws in favor of the Catholics of the South and tried to replace the electoral monarchy of the modes on hereditary. The King Recarred (586-601) announced his refusal to Arianism and the appeal to Catholicism and convened the Council on which he persuaded Arian Bishops to follow his example and recognize Catholicism of the State Religion. After his death, Arian reaction came, but the Catholicism (612-621), the Catholicism again gained the status of state religion again.

Swintila (621-631), the first Westgoth King, ruled by the whole of Spain, was erected by the throne of the Bishop of Isidore Seville. With it, the city of Toledo became the residence of the Catholic Church. Recquest (653-672) approximately 654 announced the famous arch of LIB Yudicorum laws. This outstanding document of the Westgoth period has canceled the legal differences between enterprises and local peoples. After the death of the reccister, the struggle between applicants for the throne in the conditions of the electoral monarchy were aggravated. At the same time, the king's power was noticeably weakened, and continuous palace conspiracies and meters did not stop up to the crash of the Westgoth state in 711.

Arab domination and start of reconquists.

The victory of Arabs in the battle on R.Guadalet in Southern Spain on July 19, 711 and the death of the last king of Roderich's last king two years later, in the battle of Sgoriela predicted the fate of the Westgoth Kingdom. The Arabs began to be called al-Andalus captured by them. Until 756, they were governed by the governor, which formally submitted to the Damascus Califa. In the same year, Abdarchman I founded an independent emirate, and in 929 Abdarrachman III assigned a title of caliph. This calipheat with the center in Cordove existed before the 11th century. After 1031, Cordvian caliphate broke up into a variety of small states (Emirates).

The unity of the caliphate is always illusory. The huge distances and difficulties of the communication were aggravated by racial and tribal conflicts. Between the politically dominated Arab minority and the Berbers, who made up most Muslim populations, were extremely hostile relations. This antagonism was even more aggravated due to the fact that the best lands were taken by the Arabs. The situation was aggravated by the presence of muladi mess and Mojarabov - the local population, to one degree or another of Muslim influence.

Muslims were actually unable to establish domination at the extreme north of the Pyrenean P-Ova. In 718, the Christian warriors under the top of the legendary Westgot leader Pelaio broke the Muslim army in the Mountain Valley of Kowadong.

Gradually moving towards R.Duero, Christians occupied free lands, which did not claim Muslims. At that time, the Castile border region was formed (Territorium Castelle - in the translation of the "Land of Zhamkov"); It is appropriate to notice that at the end of the 8th century. Muslim chronicles called her al-Kila (Zamki). In the early stages, reconquists emerged Christian political formations of two types, distinguished by geographical position. The western core was the Kingdom of Asturias, which, after the transfer of the yard in Leon at 10 V. It became known as the Kingdom of Leon. County Castile has turned into an independent kingdom in 1035. Two years later, Castilia united with the Kingdom of Leon and thus acquired a leading political role, and with it and the priority rights to land disheveled from Muslims.

In more oriental areas there were Christian states - the Kingdom of Navarre, the county of Aragon, which became the kingdom of 1035, and various counties related to the kingdom of francs. Initially, some of these counties were the embodiment of the Catalan ethno-linguistic community, the central place among them was the Barcelona county. Then the county of Catalonia emerged, which had access to the Mediterranean Sea and leading a lively marine trade, in particular slaves. In 1137, Catalonia joined the Kingdom of Aragon. This is the state in the 13th century. Significantly expanded its territory to the south (to Murcia), attaching also Balearic about.

In 1085 Alfons VI, the King of Leon and Castile, captured Toledo, and the border with the Muslim world moved from R.Dero to R. Thaho. In 1094, the Castilian National Hero Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, known as LED, entered Valencia. However, these major achievements were not so much the result of the zeal of the Crusaders, as a consequence of the weakness and disunity of the rulers of Typh (Emirates in the territory of the Cordvian Caliphate). In the course of the reconquists it happened that Christians were united with Muslim rulers or, having received the latter Mzdu (Parias), they hired them to defend them from the Crusaders.

In this sense, the fate of Sida is indicative. He was born ok. 1040 in Bivar (near Burgos). In 1079, the King of Alfons Vi sent him to Seville to collect Dani from the Muslim ruler. However, soon after that, he did not reveal with Alphonse and was expelled. In East Spain, he joined the path of adventure, and it was then that he received the name of LED (derived from Arab. "Seid", i.e. "Mr."). LED served as Muslim rulers as Emir Saragoza Al-Moktadir, and the rulers of Christian states. From 1094 LED began to rule Valencia. He died at 1099.

Castilian Epos. Song about my side, written approx. 1140, goes back to earlier oral legends and reliably reports many historical events. Song Not a chronicle of crusades. Although the LED fought with Muslims, in this epic, the villains are not at all they are not at all, and the Christian princes of Carrion, courtious Alphonx VI, while Muslim friend and the ally Cide, Abengalvon, surpasses their nobility.

Completion of reconquitoes.

Muslim emirs were in front of the choice: either constantly pay tribute to Christians, or to seek help from the One-ways in North Africa. In the end, Emir Seville Al-Mutamid appealed to Almoravids, who created a powerful state in North Africa. Alfons of VI managed to keep Toledo, but his army was broken with a Salaka (1086); And in 1102, three years after the death of Side, Pala and Valencia.

Almoravids removed the rulers of the rulers Typh and at first were able to unite al-Andalus. But their power weakened in the 1140s, and by the end of the 12th century. They were supplied by Almhades - Mauri from Moroccan Atlas. After Almokhada suffered a heavy defeat from Christians in the battle of Las Navas de Tolos (1212), their power was shaken.

By this time, the mentality of the Crusaders was formed, as evidenced by the life path of Alfons of the I Warrior, who ruled Aragon and Navroe from 1102 to 1134. During his rule, when there were still fresh memories of the first cross campaign, Mavrov was dismissed most of the valley r. Ebro, and the French crusaders invaded Spain and took such important citiesAs Zaragoza (1118), Tarason (1110) and Calatayud (1120). Although Alfons was not able to fulfill his dream of a campaign in Jerusalem, he lived until the moment when the spiritual and knightly order of the Templars was established in Aragon, and soon in other areas of Spain, the Order of Alcantara, Calatrava and Santiago began their activities. These mighty orders had great help in the fight against Almhades, holding strategically important points and establishing the farm in a number of border areas.

Throughout 13 V. Christians have achieved significant success and undermined the political power of Muslims by almost all of the Pyrenean P-Oves. The King of Aragon Heima I (the years of the Board 1213-1276) won the Balearic O-Wa, and in 1238 Valencia. In 1236 King of Castile and Leon Ferdinand III took Cordo, Murcia surrendered to Castillas in 1243, and in 1247 Ferdinand captured Seville. The independence has retained only the Muslim Granadian emirate, which existed to 1492. The reconquist was obliged to with his successes not only by the military actions of Christians. The readiness of Christians to negotiate with Muslims also played a big role and providing them with the right to reside in Christian states, while maintaining their faith, language and customs. For example, in Valencia, the northern territories were almost completely purified from Muslims, central and southern areas, except for the city of Valencia, inhabited mainly Mudjara (Muslims who were allowed to remain). But in Andalusia after a major Muslim uprising in 1264, the policy of Castilers completely changed, and almost all Muslims were evicted.

Later Middle Ages.

In 14-15 centuries. Spain spread internal conflicts and civil wars. From 1350 to 1389 a long struggle for power in the Kingdom of Castilia was carried out. It began with the confrontation of Pedro cruel (rules from 1350 to 1369) and the Union of the Wiel led by his illegitimate consolidated brother Enrique Trastamar. Both sides were striving to find foreign support, in particular, France and England, who were drawn in a century of war.

In 1365, Excaled from the country, Enrique Trastamarsky, with the support of French and English mercenaries, captured Castile and next year proclaimed himself as King Enrique II. Pedro fled to Bayonna (France) and, having received assistance from the British, returned to himself a country, breaking the troops by Enrique in the battle in the nucleus (1367). After that, the French king Karl V helped Enrique to return the throne. Pedro's troops were defeated on the plains of the montel in 1369, and he himself died in martial arts with his stepbrother.

But the threat to the existence of the Trastamarian dynasty did not disappear. In 1371, John Gonf, Duke Lancaster, married the eldest daughter Pedro and began to claim the Castilian throne. Portugal was involved in the dispute. The heiress of the throne married Juan I Castile (reigning years 1379-1390). The followed by the invasion of Juan in Portugal ended with a humiliating defeat in the battle with alcohubarot (1385). Having undertaken in 1386 Lancaster trekking against Castile was not successful. In the future, the Castillas looked off from his claims to the throne, and both sides agreed to marry a catharina Lancaster, a dream daughter, and the son of Juan I, the future Castilian king Enrique III (the years of the Board 1390-1406).

After the death of Enrique III, the throne was inherited by the Minor Son Juan II, but in 1406-1412 by the state in fact, Ferdinand, the younger brother Enrique III, appointed by the competing. In addition, Ferdinand managed to defend his rights to the throne in the Aragon after the death of the tagged childless Martin I in 1395; He ruled there in 1412-1416, constantly intervening in Castile affairs and pursuing the interests of his family. His son Alfons V Aragon (years of government 1416-1458) who also inherited the Sicilian throne was primarily interested in business in Italy. The second son of Juan II was absorbed by affairs in Castile, although in 1425 he became King Navarre, and after his brother's death in 1458 he inherited the throne in Sicily and Aragon. The third son, Enrique, became the Master of the Order of Santiago.

In the Castile, Alvaro de Luna, an influential favorite of Juan II, was opposed to these "princes from Aragon". The Aragon Party suffered a defeat in a decisive battle with Olmedo in 1445, but the Luna himself fell into disfavor and was executed in 1453. The Board of the next Castilian King, Enrique IV (1454-1474), led to anarchy. Enrique, who did not have children from the first marriage, divorced and entered into a second marriage. For six years, the Queen remained fruitless, which Solva accused her spouse who received the nickname "powerless". When the queen was born a daughter called Juan, in a simple people and rumors spread among the nobility that her father is not Enrique, and his favorite of Belteran de la Cueva. Therefore, Juan received a contemptuous nickname "Beltrunha" (Brother's Great). Under pressure from the oppositional nobility, the king signed a declaration in which he recognized his brother Alfons the heir to the throne, but announced this declaration invalid. Then the representatives of the nobility gathered in Avila (1465), nodded Enrique and proclaimed the King of Alfons. Many cities fell on the side of Enrique, and the civil war began, which lasted and after the sustainable death of Alfons in 1468. As a condition for the cessation of rebellion, it was nominated by the request for Enrique to appoint his step-sister Isabella in the heir. Enrique gave on this consent. In 1469 Isabella married the infanta of the Aragon Fernando (which will go down in history under the name of the Spanish king Ferdinand). After the death of Enrique IV in 1474 Isabella, the Queen of Castile was declared, and Ferdinand after the death of his father Juan II in 1479 took the throne of Aragon. So the union of the largest kingdoms of Spain was committed. In 1492 Pal. last stronghold Moors on the Pyrenean Pena - Granada Emirate. In the same year, Columbus, with the support of Isabella, made his first expedition to New World. In 1512, the Kingdom of Navarre was included in Castillia.

The Mediterranean acquisitions of Aragon had important consequences for all Spain. At first, Balearic O-Wa, Corsica and Sardinia came under the control of Aragon, then Sicily. The Board of Alphonse V (1416-1458) was conquered by South Italy. To manage the newly acquired lands, the kings prescribed governors or procurators (procurators). Back at the end of the 14th century. Such governors (or vice-kings) appeared in Sardinia, in Sicily and Mallorca. A similar management structure was reproduced in Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia due to the fact that Alphonx V was left in Italy for a long time.

The power of monarchs and royal officials was limited to Cortes (parliaments). Unlike Castile, where Cortesians were relatively weak, in Aragon for making decisions on all important bills and financial issues it was necessary to obtain the consent of Cortes. There are constant committees between the meetings of the Cortes of the Royal officials. For the supervision of the activities of Cortes, at the end of the 13th century. Delegations of cities were created. In 1359, a general deputation was formed in Catalonia, the main powers of which were reduced to tax collecting and spending money. Similar institutions were created in Aragon (1412) and Valencia (1419).

Cortesa, being not democratic authorities, represented and defended the interests of the prosperous segments of the population in cities and rural areas. If the Crestias were an obedient gun of the absolute monarchy, especially during the Board of Juan II, then in the kingdom of Aragon and part of Catalonia, another concept of power was carried out. It proceeded from the fact that political power is initially established by free people by concluding a contract by the power of people with the people in which the rights and obligations of both parties are negotiated. Accordingly, any violation of the agreement by the Royal Power is considered to be a manifestation of tyranny.

Such an agreement between the monarchy and the peasantry existed during the uprising of the so-called. Cleans (serfs) at 15 V. Speeches in Catalonia were aimed against tightening the concerns and the reassurance of peasants, especially intensified in the middle of the 15th century. And they became a reason for the Civil War 1462-1472 between the Catalan General Deputution, which supported landowners, and the monarchy, which came to the peasants. In 1455, Alphonse V canceled some feudal subsidies, but only after the next rise in the peasant movement, Ferdinand V in 1486 signed Guadalupe in the monastery of the so-called. "Guadalup Central Bank" on the abolition of serfdom, including the most grave feudal subsidies.

The position of the Jews.

In 12-13 centuries. Christians with tolerance treated Jewish and Islamic culture. But by the end of the 13th century. And for the 14th century. Their peaceful coexistence was broken. A growing wave of anti-Semitism reached a peak during the mass mass of the Jews in 1391.

Although at the 13th century. Jews amounted to less than 2% of the population of Spain, they played an important role in the material and spiritual life of society. Nevertheless, the Jews lived apart from the Christian population, in their own communities with synagogues and kosher shops. The Christian authorities who prescribed the special quarters of the Alham were promoted to allocating Jews in the cities. For example, in the city of Jerez de la Frontera, the Jewish Quarter was separated by a wall with a gate.

Jewish communities were given significant independence in managing their own affairs. In the Wednesday of Jews, as in the Mountain-Christian environment, we gradually allocated wealthy families who have gained great influence. Despite political, social and economic restrictions, Jewish scientists have made a great contribution to the development of Spanish society and culture. Thanks to the excellent knowledge of foreign languages, they carried out diplomatic orders and Christians, and Muslims. Jews played a key role in distributing the achievements of Greek and Arab scientists in Spain and other countries in Western Europe.

Nevertheless, at the end of the 14th - early 15th centuries. Jews were severely prosecuted. Many were forcibly addressed to Christianity, turning into converse. However, the conversion often remained to live in urban Jewish communities and continued to engage in traditional Jewish classes. The situation was complicated by the fact that a lot of conversion, rich, penetrated the oligarchy of such cities such as Burgos, Toledo, Seville and Cordoba, and also occupied important posts in the Royal Administration.

In 1478, the Spanish Inquisition was established led by Thomas de Torcwemead. First of all, she drew attention to the Jews and Muslims who adopted the Christian faith. From them, torture was sought by "recognition" in the heresy, after which they were usually executed through the burning. In 1492, all unresolved Jews were expelled from Spain: almost 200 thousand people were emigrated to North Africa, Turkey, on the Balkans. Most Muslims under the threat of expulsion accepted Christianity.

New and Newest History

Thanks to the swimming of Columbus in 1492 and the discovery of the new light, the basis of the Spanish Colonial Empire was laid. Since Portugal also claimed overseas possessions, in 1494 the Tordesillian Treaty on the section was concluded between Spain and Portugal. In subsequent years, the framework of the Spanish Empire was significantly expanded. France returned Ferdinand Border Provinces of Catalonia, and Aragon firmly held its positions on Sardinia, Sicily and in southern Italy.

In 1496 Isabella arranged the marriage of his son and daughters with the children of the Emperor of the Sacred Roman Empire Maximilian Habsburg. After the death of the son of Isabella, the right of inheritance of the throne passed to her daughter Juan, the wife of the heir of the emperor, Philip. When Juan had signs of breathtaking, Isabella wished to make the regent of Castile Ferdinand, but after the death of Isabella in 1504, Juan and Philip reigned on the throne on the throne, and Ferdinand was forced to retire to Aragon. After the death of Philip in 1506, Ferdinand became the regeneration of Juan, whose disease progressed. With it, Navarre was attached to Castile. Ferdinand died in 1516, and his successor was the grandson of Karl, the son of Juan and Philip.

Spain is a world power.

Decline of Spanish power.

External and internal conflicts.

With a weakly Charlery IV (1788-1808), Spain could not solve complex problems arising in connection with the Great French Revolution. Although Spain in 1793 joined other European powers who fought with France, in two years she was forced to conclude the world and since then it turned out to be in the sphere of influence of France. Napoleon used Spain as a bridgehead in the fight against England and in the implementation of Portugal's seizure plans. However, seeing that the Spanish king reluctantly obeys his orders, Napoleon forced him to renounce him in 1808 and handed over to the Crown of Spain to his brother Joseph. Joseph's rule was short. The occupation of Spain by Napoleon and his attempt to impose a monarch to her provoked the uprising. As a result of the joint actions of the Spanish army, partisan detachments and the British troops under the command of Arthur Welshley, who later became the Duke of Wellington, the French army was defeated and in 1813 was removed from the Pyrenean P-Ova.

After the depths of Napoleon, the Son of Charles, Ferdinand VII (1814-1833), was recognized as King of Spain. The Spaniards seemed to be a new era in the life of the country. However, Ferdinand VII was resolutely configured against any political change. Back in 1812, Spanish leaders who opposed King Joseph developed a liberal, although not quite practical constitution. Ferdinand approved it until his return to Spain, but when he received the crown, violated the promise and began to fight with supporters of liberal reforms. In 1820, the uprising broke out. In March 1820, the king was forced to recognize the Constitution 1812. The liberal reforms began in the country strongly conquered European monarchs. In April 1823, France, with the approval of the Holy Union, began military intervention to Spain. By October, 1823, the constitutional government, who failed to establish the country's defense, capitulated, and the King Ferdinand VII restored the absolute monarchy.

From 1833 to 1874, the country was in a state of instability, surviving a number of social, economic and political upheavals. After the death of King Ferdinand in 1833, the right to the throne of his daughter Isabella II challenged her uncle Carlos, provoked from 1833 to 1839 so-called. Carlisty wars. The constitutional board was restored in 1834, and in 1837 a new constitution was adopted, which restricted the power of the monarch with two-dollar cortes. The revolutionary events of 1854-1856 ended with the acceleration of Cortes and the abolition of liberal laws. Another rise in the revolutionary movement, which began in 1868 a navy uprising, forced Queen Isabella II to escape from the country. The Constitution 1869 proclaimed Spain inheritance monarchy, after which the Crown was proposed by Amaduya Savorsky, the son of the Italian king Viktor Emmanuel II. However, becoming king Amadeuha I, he soon counted his position extremely unstable and in 1873 he was renounced the throne. Cortez proclaimed Spain by the Republic. The experience of the short republican rule in 1873-1874 convinced the military in that only the restoration of the monarchy could put an end to the internal straight. Based on these considerations, General Martinez Campos on December 29, 1874 carried out a coup and erected the son of the son of Isabella King Alfons XII (1874-1885).

The Monarchist Constitution 1876 introduced a new system of limited parliamentary authorities, which provided for guarantees of political stability and representation mainly by secondary and higher classes. Alfons XII died in 1885. The son born after his death became King Alfons XIII (1902-1931). But before its majority (1902) the regent remained the queen.

In economically backward Spain, anarchism positions were stronger. In 1879, the Hispanic Socialist Workers Party was created in the country, but it remained small and alneal for a long time. Increased discontent and in the middle class representatives.

Spain's last overseas owners have lost 1898 as a result of defeat in the Spanish-American War. This defeat has discovered the full military and political decline of Spain.

End of the monarchy.

In 1890, universal eligible right was introduced for men. Thus, the soil was prepared for the formation of numerous new political parties, which pushed the liberal and conservative batch. When the young king of Alfons XIII to achieve the consent of the parties, began to interfere with political affairs with the aim of him accused of personal ambitions and dictate. The Catholic Church still had a great influence, but she became increasingly turned into an object of attacks by anticlericals from the lower and middle layers of society.

To limit the power of the king, church and traditional political oligarchy, reformers demanded amendments to the Constitution. Inflation during the First World War and the economic decline in the postwar years aggravated social problems. Anarcho-syndicalists who have strengthened in the Catalonium working environment provoked a four-year-old strike in industry (1919-1923), accompanied by mass bloodshed. In 1912, Spain set a limited protectorate over Northern Morocco, but an attempt to conquer this territory led to the defeat of the Spanish army at the Anvale (1921).

In an effort to soften the political situation, General Prio de River established a military dictatorship in 1923. The resistance of the dictatorship was intensified in the late 1920s, and in 1930 Prio de Rivera was forced to resign. Alfons XIII did not resolve the immediate return to the parliamentary form of the Board and was accused of an agreement with dictatorship. In the municipal elections in April 1931, Republicans won a decisive victory in all major cities. Even moderate and conservatives refused to support the monarchy, and on April 14, 1931 Alfons XIII, without renounced the throne, left the country.

Second Republic

it was solemnly proclaimed by the temporary government held from the left republicans, representatives of the middle class who opposed the Catholic Church and representatives of the socialist movement, which intended to prepare the soil for the peace transition to the Socialist Republic. Numerous social reforms were carried out, Catalonia received autonomy. However, in the 1933 elections, the republican-socialist coalition was defeated due to the opposition of moderate and Catholics. The coalition of the right forces has come to power throughout 1934 reduced the results of the reforms carried out. Socialists, anarchists and communists raised an uprising in the mining areas of Asturia, which was cruelly suppressed by the army under the command of General Francisco Franco.

In February 1936, the right folk front of Catholics and Conservatives opposed the right folk front, which represented the entire spectrum of the left forces, from Republicans to Communists and Anarcho-Syndicalists. The Popular Front, having received the votes of 1%, took power into their hands and continued the reforms started earlier.

Civil War.

Concerned communist threats, the right began to prepare for war. General Emilio Mall and other warlords, including Franco, amounted to an anti-government conspiracy. Founded in 1933, the fascist party Spanish Falang used its terrorist detachments for provoking mass riots that could serve as a reason for establishing an authoritarian regime. The reaction of the left contributed to the spiral of violence. Murder on July 13, 1936 The leader of monarchists José Calvo Smeoto served as a suitable reason for the performance of conspirators.

The rebellion was aware of the provincial capitals of Leon and the old Castile, as well as in such cities such as Burgos, Salamanca and Avila, but was depressed by the workers in Madrid, Barcelona and industrial centers of the North. In major cities of the South - Cadis, Seville and Granada - resistance was surfed in the blood. The rebels took control of about a third of Spain's territory: Galia, Leon, Old Castile, Aragon, part of Extremadura and Andalus triangle from Wales to Seville and Cordoba.

The rebels faced unexpected difficulties. The troops sent by General Mall against Madrid were stopped by the working militia in the Sierra de Guadarram mountains north of the capital. The strongest trump card of the rebel, the African army under the command of General Franco, was blocked in Morocco republican military courts, whose crews raised a riot against officers. The rebels had to seek help to Hitler and Mussolini, which provided aircraft for the transition of Franco's troops from Morocco to Seville. The rebellion of the survey in civil war. The republic, on the contrary, was devoid of support from democratic states. Before the threat of an internal political confrontation under the pressure of Great Britain, which was concerned to provoke the world war, French Prime Minister Leon Blum refused to help Republicans, and were forced to ask for help from the USSR.

After receiving reinforcements, the nationalist rebels took two military campaigns, which sharply improved their position. The mole introduced the troops to the Basque province of Hypuscane, cutting it off from France. Meanwhile, the African Army of Franco quickly advanced to the north towards Madrid, leaving behind the bloody traces, such as, for example, in Badaju, where 2 thousand prisoners were shot. By August 10, both previously disparate groups of rebels were connected. They significantly strengthened their position in August-September. General Jose Enrique Varen has established the connection of rebellious groups in Seville, Cordove, Granada and Cadis. The Republicans did not have such success. The Toledo rebellious garrison was still in the siege in the Alcazar fortress, and the troops of an anarchist militia from Barcelona 18 months tried in vain to win Saragos, which quickly surrendered to the rebels.

On September 21, at the airfield near Salamanca, the leading rebellious generals met to elect the commander in chief. The choice fell on General Franco, who on the same day passed the troops from the opinion of Madrid to the southwest to Toledo to release the Alcazar fortress. Although he irrevocably lost the chance to capture the capital before she prepared for defense, he was able to strengthen his power to an impressive victory. In addition, tightening the war, he took the time for political cleansing on the territory captured by him. September 28, Franco was approved by the head of the nationalist state and immediately installed in the zone of its control the regime of sole power. On the contrary, the republic has experienced constant difficulties due to strong differences between the block of communists and moderate socialists who want to strengthen the defense, and anarchists, trotskyists and the left socialists who called on the social revolution.

Defense of Madrid.

On October 7, the African army resumed an offensive on Madrid, crowded with refugees and suffering from the lack of food. The delay of Franco raised the heroic spirit of the defenders of the capital and gave the opportunity to the Republicans to receive weapons from the USSR and replenishment in the form of volunteer international brigades. By November 6, 1936, Frankist troops approached the ease of Madrid. On the same day, the republican government moved from Madrid to Valencia, leaving the troops under the command under the command of General José Miahi. He was supported by the Defense Office, in which the Communists prevailed. Miahu swallowed the population, while his headquarters head, Colonel Vicente Rokho, organized urban defense detachments. By the end of November, Franco, despite the help of the first-class prepared German divisions of the Legion "Condor", recognized the failure of his offensive. The precipitated city lasted two more and a half years.

Then Franco changed tactics and took a number of attempts to surround the capital. In Battles at Boadille (December 1936), Harama (February 1937) and Guadalajara (March 1937) The price of huge losses of the Republicans stopped his troops. But even after the defeat at Guadalajara, where several regular divisions of the Italian army were broken, the rebels held the initiative. In the spring and summer, 1937, they easily captured all of Northern Spain. In March, Mol has led 40 thousand soldiers to the offensive of Basque, supported by experienced specialists in terror and bombing from Legion "Condor". The most monstrous action was the destruction of April 26, 1937 of Gerns. This barbaric bombing broke the moral spirit of Basque and destroyed the defense of the Balbao Balbao Bilbao, which has capitulated June 19. After that, the Army of Frankists, enhanced by Italian soldiers, was captured by Santander on August 26. Asturias was occupied during September-October, which put the Industry of the North to serve the rebels.

Vicente Rokho tried to suspend the massive offensive of Frankists series of counterattacks. On July 6, in Brunte, west of Madrid, 50 thousand. Republican soldiers broke through the enemy line of the front, but the nationalists managed to shut down. At the cost of incredible efforts, the Republicans delayed the final breakthrough in the north. Later, in August 1937, Rokho undertook a bold plan of the surroundings of the Zaragoza. In mid-September, the Republicans began an offensive in the belch. As in Brunteet, at first they had an advantage, and then did not have enough strength to apply a decisive impact. In December 1937, Rokho struck a proactive blow to Terula, hoping to distract Franco troops from the next attack on Madrid. This plan worked: January 8, in the coldest, Republicans captured Teruel, but on February 21, 1938 after a six-week shelling of heavy artillery and bombing were forced to retreat under the threat of a surroundings.

Ending war

Frankists strengthened his victory with a new onset. In March 1938, almost 100 thousand soldiers, 200 tanks and 1 thousand German and Italian aircraft began an offensive through Aragon and Valencia to the East towards the sea. Republicans exhaled, they lacked arms and ammunition, and after defeat in Teruel were demoralized. By the beginning of April, the rebels reached Lerida, and then descended by the Valley of R. Ebro, cutting off a catalonium from the rest of the republic. Soon after that they came to the coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

In July, Franco launched a powerful attack on Valencia. The persistent struggle of the Republicans slowed down his promotion and exhausted the forces of phalangeists. But by July 23, Frankists were less than 40 km from the city. Valencia was a direct threat to capture. In response, Rokho launched a spectacular distracting maneuver, starting a major offensive through R. Ebro to restore the relationship with Catalonia. After the desperate three-month battle, the Republicans reached the Gansa 40 km from the initial positions, but stopped when the phalange reinforcements were transferred to this area. By mid-November, the Republicans were discarded with huge losses in the lively strength. January 26, 1939 capitulated Barcelona. March 4, 1939 In Madrid, the commander of the Republican Army Center, Colonel Shhimmundo Casado raised the rebellion against the republican government, hoping to stop senseless bloodshed. Franco flatly refused his proposals about the truce, and the troops began to surrender throughout the front line. When on March 28, the nationalists entered the empty Madrid, 400 thousand Republicans began the outcome of the country. The victory of the phalanxists led to the establishment of a Dictatorship of Franco. More than 1 million people hit in prison or labor camps. In addition to 400 thousand who died during the war, in the period from 1939 to 1943, another 200 thousand people were executed.

Spain during World War II.

When the second began in September 1939 world War, Spain was weakened and devastated by the Civil War and did not dare to speak on the side of the "axis" countries Berlin - Rome. Therefore, direct assistance to Franco Allies was limited to sending 40 thousand soldiers of the Spanish Blue Division to the Eastern Front. In 1943, when it became clear that Germany loses war, Franco went on cooling relations with Germany. At the end of the war, Spain even sold strategic raw materials to the Western Allies, but this did not change their relationship to Spain as an enemy country.

Spain with Franco.

At the end of the war, Spain was in diplomatic isolation and was not part of the UN and NATO, but Franco did not lose hope for reconciliation with the West. In 1950, the decision of the UN General Assembly, the UN Member States received the opportunity to restore diplomatic relations with Spain. In 1953, the United States and Spain concluded an agreement on the establishment of several US military bases in Spain. In 1955, Spain was adopted by the UN.

Liberalization of the economy and economic growth in the 1960s were accompanied by some political concessions. In 1966, an organic law was adopted, which made a number of liberal amendments to the Constitution.

The Franco mode spawned the political passivity of the overwhelming majority of the Spaniards. The government did not try to engage wide segments of the population into political organizations. Ordinary citizens did not show interest in state affairs; Most of them were looking for favorable opportunities to improve living standards.

From 1950, illegal strikes began to flare up in Spain, in the 1960s they became more frequent. A number of illegal trade union committees arose. Separatists of Catalonia and the Basque countries, which persistently achieved autonomy, were made with decisive anti-government requirements. True, the Catalan separatists showed greater restraint compared to the extremist tuned Basque nationalists from the organization Basque fatherland and freedom (this).

Significant support for the French regime was provided by the Spanish Catholic Church. In 1953, Franco concluded concordate with the Vatican that the candidates of higher hierarchs of the church will be selected by secular power. However, since 1960, the leadership of the Church began to gradually be marched from the regime policy. In 1975, Pope publicly condemned the execution of several Basque Nationalists.

In the 1960s, Spain began to establish close ties with Western European countries. Already in early 1970s, Spain visited up to 27 million tourists annually, mainly from North America and Western Europe, while hundreds of thousands of Spaniards left for earnings to other European countries. However, Benilyuks states opposed Spain's participation in the military and economic unions of Western European countries. The first request of Spain on admission to the UES was rejected in 1964. So far, Franco remained in power, the Government of Democratic Western European countries did not want to establish closer contacts with Spain.

In the last years of the life of Franco, weakened control over government affairs. In June 1973, he gave way to the post of Prime Minister, who occupied for 34 years, Admiral Luisa Carrero Blanco. In December, Carrero Blanco was killed by Basque terrorists, and he was replaced by Carlos Arias Navarro, the first civilian prime minister after 1939. In November 1975, Franco died. Back in 1969, Franco announced his successor to Prince Juan Carlos from the Bourbon dynasty, the grandson of the king Alfons XIII, who headed the state as King Juan Carlos I.

Transition period.

Franco's death accelerated the liberalization process that began in his life. By June 1976, Cortez was allowed political rallies and legalized democratic political parties. In July, the Prime Minister of the country Arias, a consistent conservative, was forced to give his chair Adolfo Suarez Gonzalez. The bill who has prepared the ground for free elections to parliament has been adopted by Cortes in November 1976 and approved at the national referendum.

In the elections in June 1977, the Union of the Democratic Center (SDC) of Suarez received a third of the votes and thanks to the system of proportional representation took almost half of the places in the lower house of parliament. The Spanish Socialist Workers Party (ISRP) gathered almost the same votes, but received only one third of the places. In 1978, the Parliament adopted a new constitution, which was approved on a universal referendum in December.

Suarez resigned in January 1981. His successor was another leader of the SDC, Leopoldo Calvo Smell. Taking advantage of the change of power, conservative officers decided to arrange a coup, but the king, relying on the devotees of military leaders, the presets attempt to capture power.

In the early stages of the transition period, a major contradictions were torn. The main one was split between the supporters of civil democratic board, on the one hand, and supporters of the military dictatorship - on the other. The first was the king, two main parties and most small parties, trade unions and entrepreneurs, i.e. In fact, most of the Spanish society. For authoritarian forms of government, a few extremist organizations of the extreme left and extremely right sense were performed, as well as part of the highest officers of the Armed Forces and the Civil Guard. Although supporters of democracy were significantly more, their opponents were armed and ready to apply weapons.

The second confrontation line flew between supporters of political modernization and those who defended the traditional foundations. The modernization was mainly maintained by the townspeople, showing high political activity, whereas the rural population was inclined to traditionalism.

There was also a split between supporters of centralized and regional management. The king, armed forces, political parties and organizations who opposed the decentralization of power were drawn to this conflict, on the one hand, and the champions of the autonomy of the regions. As always, Catalonia occupied the most moderate position, and the most radical is the Basque Country. Nationwide parties of the left wing advocated limited self-government, but were against complete autonomy.

In the 1990s, disagreements between the right and left and supporters of modernization on the issue of the transition to constitutional government were aggravated. At first there were disagreements between the Left Centerric Spanish Socialist Workers Party (ISRP) and now the democratic center of the Democratic Center (IDC). After 1982, similar disagreements were revealed between the ISRP and the Conservative People's Union (NA) renamed 1989 to the People's Party (NP).

Fierce disputes broke out about the details of the electoral process, the provisions of the Constitution and the laws. All these conflicts testified to the dangerous polarization of the Company and complicated the achievement of consensus.

The process of transition to democracy ended in the mid-1980s. By this time, the country overcame the risk of return to the old, as well as extremist separatism, at times threatening the integrity of the state. The mass support of the multi-party parliamentary democracy was clearly revealed. However, there were consistent differences in political views. Public opinion polls indicated that preference was given to the left-centers along with the strengthening of thrust to the political center.

The Board of Socialists.

In 1982, another attempt was prevented by a military couch. In the face of danger from the right voters in the 1982 elections, the ICRP preference was preferred led by Felipe Gonzalez Marquez. This party received most places in both chambers of parliament. For the first time since the 1930s, the Government of Socialists came to power in Spain. The CDC suffered such a strong defeat that after the election announced a samorem. ISRP managed Spain on his own or in coalition with other parties from 1982 to 1996.

The policy of socialists was increasingly dispersed with the software settings of the left wing. The government has taken a course on the capitalist development of the economy, which included the favored investment regime for foreign investment, the privatization of industry, floating course, and reducing funds for social security programs. For almost eight years, the Spanish economy has successfully developed, but important social problems remained unresolved. Unemployment growth by 1993 exceeded 20%.

From the very beginning, trade unions opposed the policies of the ICRP, and even during the period of economic lifting, when Spain had the most stable economy in Europe, mass strikes were held, sometimes accompanied by unrest. Teachers, officials, miners, peasants, transport workers, industrial workers and dockers participated in them. Universal One-day strike 1988 (first after 1934) paralyzed the whole country: 8 million people participated in it. To stop the strike, Gonzalez went on a number of concessions, agreeing to increase pensions and unemployment benefits. In the 1980s, Spain began to work closely with western countries in the economic and political sphere. In 1986, the country was adopted in UES, and in 1988 extended a bilateral defense agreement for eight years, which allows the United States to use military bases in Spain. In November 1992, Spain ratified the Maastricht EU Education Treaty.

Spain's integration with Western European countries and openness policies to the outside world guaranteed the protection of democracy from military coups, and also ensured the inflow of foreign investment.

The ICRP led by Gonzalez won the parliamentary elections in 1986, 1989 and 1993, the number of votes submitted for it gradually decreased, and in 1993 to form the government, the socialists had to join the coalition with other parties. In 1990, a wave of political exposures was held, undermining the authority of some parties, including ICRP.

One of the sources of tension in Spain remained the incessant terrorism of the Basque group, which took responsibility for 711 murders committed in the period from 1978 to 1992. The loud scandal broke out when it became aware of the existence of illegal police units who killed member in Northern Spain and southern France in the 1980s.

Spain in the 1990s.

The economic downturn, which became obvious in 1992, was aggravated in 1993, when unemployment increased greatly and production decreased. The rehabilitation of the economy, which began in 1994, could no longer return to the socialists by the past. As in the elections in June 1994, the European Parliament and regional and local elections in May 1995 ranked second after NP.

After 1993, to create a viable coalition in Cortesah, the ICRP took advantage of the support of the party convergence and the Union (KIS), which was headed by Prime Minister of Catalonia Jardi Pukhol, who used this political connection for the further struggle for the autonomy of Catalonia. In October 1995, Catalans refused to support the government of socialists, who were sharp criticized, and forced him to hold new elections.

Jose Maria Asnar gave a new dynamic image of the conservative NP, which helped her to win the elections in March 1996. However, in order to form the government, NP was forced to turn to the fluff and his party, as well as to the parties of the Basque and Canary Islands. The new government provided additional powers to regional authorities; In addition, it was at the disposal of these bodies to arrive twice the share of income tax (30% instead of 15%).

A priority in the process of preparing the national economy to introduce a single European currency, the Government of ASNARA considered a decrease in the budget deficit due to the strictest economy of government spending and the privatization of state-owned enterprises. NP resorted to such unpopular measures as a reduction in the Fund and freezing of wages, reducing social security and subsidies. Therefore, at the end of 1996, she again gave way to ISRP positions.

In June 1997, after 23 years of stay as the head of the ISRP, Felipe Gonzalez announced his resignation. In this post, he was changed by Hoakin Almuni, who had previously headed the party fraction of socialists in parliament. In the meantime, the relationship between the Government of Asnar and the main regional parties were complicated. The government has encountered a new campaign terror, unleashed by Basque separatists from this against the highest state and municipal officials.

In March 2000, the People's Party again won, and her leader Asnar took the post of Prime Minister.

March 11, 2004 13 explosions thundered in Madrid. 191 people died and 1247 were injured. This terrorist attack was organized and implemented by Al-Qaida terrorists.

The explosions occurred three days before the parliamentary elections and became the answer of terrorists on the participation of the Spanish military in the military operation in Iraq. The Spaniards laid the guilt for the terrorist attacks at Prime Minister José Maria Asnara. He lost the election on March 14, 2004, and his successor to José Luis Rodriguez Sapatero brought the Spanish troops from Iraq.

In September 2011, Prime Minister José Luis Sapatero made a statement about his resignation, and therefore the dissolution of the Government of Spain. The reason for the resignation was a decrease in the popularity of the socialist party, because In connection with the crisis, the Cabinet was forced to reduce social costs. Early elections took place on November 20, 2011. Most of the votes (44%, i.e. 187 seats in parliament) received the Conservative People's Party of Spain. Party leader Mariano Raha Brey became a new prime minister.

. M., 1983.
Lagutina E.I., Lachininsky V.A. Countries of the Pyrenean Peninsula. L., 1984.
Capteeva TP Art of Spain. M., 1989.
Spain and Portugal. M., 1989.
Spain. M., 1993.
Henkin S.I. Spain after dictatorship. M., 1993.
Butorina O.V. Spain: Economic Lift Strategy. M., 1994.



Spain occupies most (85%) of the Pyrenean Peninsula. From the northeastern neighbor - France - she fell apart with Pyrenees, in addition, it has land borders with Portugal, Andorra, the English colony of Gibraltar and Morocco. In the east and south is washed by the Mediterranean Sea, in the north and west - the Atlantic Ocean (Biscay Bay). Spain includes the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, Balearic and Pitius Islands in the Mediterranean. Under the control of Spain are the cities of Ceuta and Melilla on the territory of Morocco.

Spain - the second in the area (505.9 thousand km2) and on the highlastic (average height above sea level - 600 m) Country of Europe, the population is 39.7 million people.

Spain after Switzerland is considered the most high-mountainous country of Europe. Plateau and mountains make up about 90% of its territory. Almost half of the country's surface occupies the largest platose zone in Europe (in Spanish - "Table") its average height of 660 m. Place is huge monotonous dry flat spaces with very hot summer and cold winter. Local residents They say about his land like this: "We have three months of the chest and nine months of hell."

The most powerful mountain system of Spain - Pyrenees - is a few parallel ridges stretching from west to east at 450 km and separating the Pyrenean Peninsula from the rest of Europe. This is one of the most difficult to reach mountainous countries Europe, but also one of the most picturesque. Pyrenees are especially diverse and beautiful in the central part, where the ice mills of the relief, alpine lakes and snowflies are found. The main peak of Pyreneev - Peak Aneto (3404 m).

Spanish Pyrenees - a large area of \u200b\u200binternational tourism with excellent conditions for mountaineering, skiing, cycling, alpine skis.

The entire southeast of the Pyrenean Peninsula is engaged in Cordillery-Betika, which is a system of mountain arrays and ridges. The highest mountain range - Sierra Nevada - is inferior in alpine alps in Europe. Here is the highest peak of the Pyrenean Peninsula - Mount Mulasen (3478 m).

Valleys, basins and lowlands take up only 11% of Spain territory. The largest plain - Andaluskaya, on which the Guadalquivir River proceeds. In the northeast of the country, in the Valley of the Ebro River, the Aragon Plain spread. The non-lane is stretching lowland along the Mediterranean coast.

Statistical indicators of Spain
(as of 2012)

Approximately 60% of the territory of Spain is arid, therefore the problem of water is one of the most important in the country. Spain's hydrocessures are extremely unevenly distributed: in the northern and northwestern regions - water in excess, while in the Mediterranean and central regions there is a huge lack of water.

Minerals Spain

Spain's subsoran is distinguished by rudy and have large reserves of a variety of ores. Mineral fuel reserves are relatively small. The main mineral deposits are located in Mountains, encircling the Mesteau, and in the peripheral areas of the country. In the Cantabrian mountains there are main deposits of stone coal, iron ore and zinc. Sierra Moraine contains the largest stocks of pyrite and polymetals. Significant stocks of iron ore and polymetals are also available in the Andalusian mountains. Tin field, Wolframa, Urana are located in the Galician Mountains. At the junction of the Pyrenees and Catalan Mountains with the Aragon lowland, the fields of lignites and the potash salt are concentrated.

In Spain, there are large (up to 2 billion tons) stocks of high-quality iron ore with a metal content of up to 50%. The main deposits are located in the north of the country. Up to 20% of all reserves of iron ores fall on Asturia and Galia. Large deposits of iron ore are available in the Andalusian mountains, north of Almeria.

According to the reserves of copper pyrites, Spain ranks first in Europe. The main deposits of Tarsis, Rio Tinto and Sars are located in the province of Wales (Andalusia), in the mountains of Sierra Moraine between the rivers of Guadiana and Guadalquivir. They were developed in many years before our era. In Andalusia there are also significant reserves of non-ferrous metals, in the province of Khan - deposits of lead-zinc ores (Linares, La Carolina). Zinc deposits in Santander on the Biscay coast (Reosyne region) are being developed. In Galicia, tungsten ores are mined. There are also a manganese and tin. Uranium deposits were found near the Portuguese border.

The main field of mercury Almaden is located in the province of Ciudad Real (New Castile), at the junction of the place and Sierra-Moraine. The ore extracted in Almaden is contained up to 6-9% of mercury. In Andalusia and Galicia there are platinum, gold and silver deposits. Up to half of all coal reserves account for Asturia - the main coal basin of the country. In the northwest, in Leon, there are deposits of Anthracite. The largest reserves of brown coal are located in the east of the country - the area of \u200b\u200bUtriraly near Teruel. Shalants are mined in Puertoliano (Ciudad Real). In Catalonia (Suria district) there are large stocks of potash salts. Phosphorites in Extremadur and sulfur in the Albacete, asphalt in the upper reaches of the Valley of Ebro are mined. In the period from 1952 to 1955 In the upper reaches of Ebro at considerable depths found signs of oil. It is believed that oil is also available in other areas located near the slopes of the Pyrenees mountains and on the Andalusian lowland. In the province of Sevilla, a methane deposit was found.

Climate Spain

Due to the length of Spain from the north to the south and the branched mountain system, the climate differs quite noticeably in different parts of the country. Brightly trace and vertical explanation.

The northern regions are in fairly peculiar conditions - here a strong influence of the wet marine masses from the Atlantic, so in Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria and Basque Country (from + 8 ° C to + 14 ° C) and a sufficiently wet winter, and the summer is moderately warm ( from + 21 ° C to 26 ° C). However, from the north, this region is fenced off by a powerful wall of the Pyrenees Mountains (height up to 3404 m), so in mountainous areas The temperature in the winter can be lowered to -7 ° C, and in summer it is usually not heated above + 22 ° C. At the same time, the same mountains, as it were, locked the strongly heated mass of air, coming from the south, from the territory of Africa, which in summer often leads to an increase in daytime temperatures to + 32 ° C. The narrow strip of the coast of the north of the mountains according to its weather conditions is already to the moderate sea climate. The precipitation falls up to 1200 mm per year, mainly in the autumn-winter period. In the highland areas in winter, frost and abundant snowfall.

The central areas of Spain are in the field of high plateau and mountain ranges, therefore the climate is close here to a sharp continental - day and night temperatures may differ by 10-15 degrees even in the summer. Winter here is dry and for such a southern region - cold (from -4 ° C to + 8 ° C), summer roast (up to + 30 ° F day) and dry. In Madrid in the summer, the average temperature is held in the area of \u200b\u200bthe mark of + 25 ° C (at the same time, at night, it can drop to + 16 ° C, and during the thermometer, the thermometer can translate for + 38 ° C), in winter - about + 5 ° C. Precipitation drops no more than 500 mm per year, mainly in spring and autumn. In the mountainous regions of Aragon and Northern Castilla in winter, snow often falls. In the Pyrenees, Sierra Nevada and Sierra de Guadarram, many tops are covered with snow all year round.

The east coast of the country is located in the zone of subtropical Mediterranean climate. Here is dry hot summer and soft winter. In summer, the temperature can reach + 36-38 ° C at an average level of about + 27 ° C, in the winter, the thermometer bar does not fall below + 12 ° C, although it is usually held in the region + 14-18 ° C (the Mediterranean coast of the country is quite extended, so In the south, always a few warmer than in the north). The precipitation falls a little (500-600 mm per year), mainly in the fall and winter. Water in the summer heats up to + 23-27 ° C, so the beach season lasts here from May-June to October.

On the Balearic Islands climate subtropical Mediterranean. However, due to its position, the island receives a few more precipitation than the nearby continental coast of the country. Yes, and summer temperatures are somewhat lower here - + 26-28 ° C in daytime maxima in the area of \u200b\u200bthe mark in + 30-32 ° C. The beach season on Balera, starts in March, when the water temperature rises to + 18 ° C, and ends in October.

On the islands of the Canary Archipelago Climate is close to the tropical trade path. The proximity of the cold ocean flow will noticeably soften the summer heat inherent inherent for the whole region, but it also levels the total temperature background - in summer, on any of the islands of the archipelago, the average temperature ranges from + 18 ° C to + 21 ° C at highs from + 36 ° C to + 38 ° C, in the winter, the thermometer bar does not fall below + 12 ° C at maxima to + 24 ° C. However, the hot wind "Harmattan" blowing from the coast of Africa is able to dramatically increase the air temperature at any time of the year, but the summer trade winds almost completely level its influence during this period. The water temperature is even more constant - + 20-23 ° C all year round.

The precipitation falls a bit - from 250 to 400 mm per year, and the Fuerteventura, Lanzarote and the southern regions of the Grand Canaria and Tenerife are rather arms (no more than 200 mm per year), and the northwestern areas (especially the mountain) is significantly wet. Local rains are very strong, but short-term. Often they are accompanied by powerful thunderstorms.

Plant and animal world of Spain

Apart from the flora of the Canary Islands, about 8,000 species of plants are growing in Spain, there are many endemic, that is, growing only here. Only a small part remained from the once extensive forests, mainly in the north of the country. In Wet Spain, the forest is mostly broad-willed (beech, elm, oak, chestnut, ash, linden, poplar), evergreen breeds appear in the mountains (oak varieties, pines, spruce), even above the forests are moving to the Alpine meadows.

The richest vegetation on the North Atlantic slopes of the Cantabrian Mountains and the Galician array - these areas are called "green" Spain. On the plain of the Ebro River at the foot of the mountains grow evergreen shrubs and herbs, there are also semi-desert vegetation with a predominance of wormwood and salt marsh. Mediterranean vegetation predominates in the "dry" Spain, Evergreen shrubs - McWis, Gariga and half-walkers. McVis includes Mirt, Juniper, Wild Pistachio, Podanenik and Low Trees.

The animal world of Spain is very rich and diverse. In the north of the Fauna Middle Eastern: a lot of deer, roe deer, boars. Mountain areas have noble deer and a Pyrenean mountain goat. Sports hunting is allowed on deer. Sometimes a brown bear is found in the Cantabrian Mountains and the mountains of Leon. Quite few of the predators preserved quite little wolves, foxes, and at the mouth of the Guadalkivi-Vira - Spanish fish.

Spain is considered the richest country in Europe by the number of bird species found here. In the summer in Spain, you can see up to 25 types of birds of prey: hawks, eagles, griffins, falcons (the largest colony of black hawks on Torrejon reservoir on the Tejo River). Many rare species are just winter here, and it is best to watch them early in spring or late in the fall. There are a lot of waterfowl colonies: geese, ducks, herp, flamingos, white storks. In Spain, there are also many species of reptiles: lizards, snakes, chameleons, and in semi-deserts in the south-east of the country there are tarantulas and scorpions. Many fish are found in the mouths of the rivers and in the Atlantic, mostly these are sardines, less - Salads, cods, anchovs and various types of mollusks. In the Mediterranean Sea, there are tuna, salmon, anchovies, crayfish and langusts.

The position at the junction of Europe and Africa, the closed Mediterranean and the endless Atlantic left an indelible track on the whole appearance of Spain. In this country, at the same time you can admire the sandy beaches of the Mediterranean Sea - and evergreen meadows on the Atlantic Coast; covered with snow vertices of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, almost impregnable mountains of the Pyrenees - and the fertile plains of Andalusia, that is, the landscape of one part of Spain is radically different from the other. This is the unprecedented beauty and the uniqueness of the nature of this edge.

Differences of landscapes of individual areas Pyrenean Peninsula Conducted by the closedness of the inner parts, with a continental tint of climate, which creates other features of nature compared to seaside areas.

In addition, due to the considerable height of the mountains and the plane, the role of vertical climatic and landscape zonality appears on the Pyrenean Peninsula.

But, despite these features and the peculiarity of the Pyrenean Peninsula, by nature of nature, he is close to Southern Europe, belonging to it to a single Mediterranean large geographic area, wonderful on the bright severity of typical landscapes.

The average surface height of Spain is 660 meters Over the sea level: the country is one of the most mountainous in Europe (after Switzerland). Most of the territory occupies a system of mountain ranges and high-altitude plane (90% of the territory!).

Almost half of the territory of Spain occupies the largest plane bearer in Europe.

A further continuation of them is high and powerful. In essence, Cantabrian Mountains are a tectonic continuation of the most powerful mountain system of Spain - Pyrenees. Pyrenees are several parallel ridges stretching from west to east by 450 kilometers.

Pyrenean Mountains separate Spain from France. More precisely, it is a mountain system that is located in Spain in France, as well as in the principality of Andorra. It stretches from the Biscay Bay to the Mediterranean Sea. This is the most difficult part of Europe. The Spanish South Slope of Pyrenees is a major international center of mountain tourism.

The average height of the pyrenees is not very high(about 2,500 meters), But they have only a few conveniently located passes. All passes are located at an altitude of 1,500-2,000 m. Therefore, from Spain, only four railways go to France, two - bypass the Pyrenees along the coast from the North-West and the South-East, two more crosses the Pyrenees in the areas of Aerbe-Molon-Sent Marie and Ripol Prad, through the tunnel system.

The main peak of Pyreneev - Peak Aneto – about 3,405 meters. All the grandiose Pyrenean-Cantabrian mountain system is stretched in the latitudinal direction.

The most difficult to reach part of Europe - Pyrenean Mountains

Next large system of tertiary folded mountains - (Sistema ibérico, or Celtiberianalso Hesperid) - Located along the northeast edge. They stretch from the Cantabrian mountains to the coast of the Mediterranean Sea (north of Valencia).

The length of the mountains is from 450 to 500 km, width up to 250 km. The Iberian system is the largest lifting area of \u200b\u200bthe country's mountain range. It takes over 40 thousand square meters. km.

Highest point - mount Monkayo. (2316 m).

In the Iberian mountains, many major Spanish rivers take the beginning - Duero, Tahoe,right trusts Ebro, Huhar, Guadalaviar (Turing).

Iberian Mountains give rise to many rivers flowing both in Spain and in Portugal

On the island part of Spain - on the Canar - is the Volcano Take

Lowlands

The remaining (from the mountains and the plane) about 11% of the territory of Spain occupy plains and lowlands.

The largest lowland of Spain - Andalusskaya (Depresión bética), with a length of about 300 km, is located in the south of Spain, at the southern edge of the place, at the site of the foothill. By origin, this is a former sea bay filled with Cenozoic marine and river deposits. On lowlands proceeds by one of the main rivers of Spain - Guadalquivir.

Andalus Lowland - Agricultural Region, where the world famous wines Malaga, Jerez and Montilla-Moriza produce

Also on the Mediterranean coast stretch the narrow strips, small in the area, Murzhyskayaand Valencian lowlands - Valensky lowland lies in the southeast edge of the Iberian Mountains descending to the sea, and south, between Cape Nao, Palos and Gata, widely open bays are embedded with a narrow strip of the Murzhi lowland (lying in the southeast foot of the Betsky Mountains).

In the northeast of Spain in the Valley of the River Ebro spread a large Aragon Plain. It is located in a slightly greater height than lowlands.

The height of the plain is about 250 m, near the mountains - up to 500-700 m (located between the Iberian, Pyrenean and Catalan mountains). The length is 300 km, width - up to 120 km. The surface of the plain is sobmlen, it itself has a triangular shape and stretches, expanding, from the north-west to the southeast.

River

According to the Andalusian lowland, one of the main rivers of Spain flows (the only shipping in the lower current) - (Length 657 km). The river is polluted by wastewater and is used for irrigation and generating electricity.

Shipping river Guadalquivir

The rest of the rivers are distinguished by sharp seasonal level fluctuations and a spherical flow. The longest river peninsula - Her total length - 1 038 km, in Spain its length 716 km, on the border of Spain and Portugal - 47 km.

The longest river of the Pyrenean Peninsula - Tahoe

Mila Baskov, especially for

Introduction

Spain (Spain. España.), Officially - the Kingdom of Spain (Spain and Galis. Reino de España, Cat. REGNE D "ESPANYA, BASK. ESPAINIAKO ERRESUMA, OX. REIALME D" ESPANHA, ASTUR. REINU D "ESPAñA) - a state in the south-west of Europe. It takes most of the Pyrenean Peninsula. The name of the country comes from the Phoenician expression "and-punish" - "Coast of Rabbits".

Borders with:

Portugal in the west of the Pyrenean Peninsula;

British ownership of Gibraltar in the south of the Iberian Peninsula;

Morocco in North Africa (Ceut's Anklava and Melilla);

France and Andorra in the north.

Spain is washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the north and west, as well as the Mediterranean Sea in the south and east.

1. Physico-geographical characteristics

1.1. Relief

Relief Spain is very diverse. The center of the country is at a distance of 300 kilometers from the sea. In the relief, the dominant role is played by the systems of mountain ranges and high-altitude plane.

Plateau and mountains make up about 90 percent of its territory. Almost half of the surface of the country is extensive, the largest high plateau in Europe - with a medium height of 660 meters of the knee. It is characterized by alternating the plateau, folded-boulder ridges and mountain boollins. The central Cordillera shares the reselle into two parts: North and South.

In the north, there is a powerful cantabrian mountains, which stretch along the coast of the Biscay bay of 600 kilometers, isolating the interior areas from the effect of the sea. In their central part there is an array of Picos-de Euroop (from Spanish - Peaks of Europe) with heights of up to 2648 m. These mountains of the Alpine type are complicated mainly by the sediments of the coal period - limestones, quartzites, sandstones. Cantabrian Mountains - the orographic and tectonic continuation of the most powerful mountain system of Spain - Pyrenees.

Pyrenees are several parallel ridges stretching from west to east by 450 kilometers. This is one of the most hard-to-reach mining countries in Europe. Although an average of them is not very high (just over 2500 meters), they have only a few conveniently located passes. All passes are located at an altitude of 1500-2000 m. Therefore, only four railways go from Spain to France: two of them bypass Pyrenees along the coast from the North-West and the Southeast, and two more railways cross the pyrenees in the Aerbe plots - Molon Saint-Marie and Ripol - Prad, through the system of tunnels. The most wide and high part of the mountains is central. Here is the main top of the peak anetho, reaching 3405 meters.

From the northeast to the miss, the system of Iberian Mountains is adjacent, maximum height (Peak Mont-Kayo) - 2313 meters.

Between the Eastern Pyrenees and Iberian Mountains, low Catalan Mountains, the southern slopes of which are broken down to the Mediterranean Sea. Catalan Mountains (average heights of 900-1200 meters, the vertex - Mount Karo, 1447 meters) followed by 400 kilometers in almost parallel to the seach of the Mediterranean Sea and actually separate the Aragon plateau from him. Sections of coastal plains, developed in Murcia, Valencia and Catalonia north of Cape Palos to the border with France, are distinguished by high fertility.

The entire southeast of the Pyrenean Peninsula is busy Cordillery-Betika, which is a system of arrays and ridges. The crystal axis serves the mountains of Sierra Nevada. In height, they are inferior in Europe only Alps. Their vertex, Moulasen Mountain, reaching 3478 meters, is the highest point of the peninsular Spain. However, the highest mountain peak of Spain is located on the island of Tenerife (Canary Islands) is a Tadeid volcano, the height of which reaches 3718 meters.

Most of the Spanish territory is located at an altitude of about 700 meters above sea level. This is the second in altitude country in Europe after Switzerland.

The only large lowland is Andalusian - located in the south of the country. In the northeast of Spain in the valley of r. Ebro spread the Aragon Plain. Smaller lowland sizes stretch along the Mediterranean Sea. According to Andalusian lowland, one of the main rivers of Spain (and the only shipping in the lower flow) is Guadalquivir. The rest of the rivers, including the largest: Tahoe and Duero, the lower reaches of which are located on the territory of neighboring Portugal, Ebro, Guadiana, are characterized by sharp seasonal fluctuations in the level and the philanthropy.

Large countries of the country suffer from lack of water. The problem of erosion is connected with this - millions of tons of the top layer of soil are revealed annually.

The capital of Spain - Madrid is located in the geographical center of the country and is the most "high" capital of Europe.

On the coast of Spain there are more than two thousand beaches: Costa Brava, Costa Dorada, Costa del Assar, Costa de Almeria, Costa Blanca, Mar Menor, Costa del Sol, Costa de la Luz, Rias -Bashas, \u200b\u200bRias Altas, Costa Cantbrick, Canary and Balearic Islands.

1.2. Climate

Spain is one of the most warm states in Western Europe. The average number of sunny days is 260-285. The average annual temperature on the Mediterranean coast is 20 degrees of heat. In winter, the temperature is descended below the zero usually only in the central and northern regions of the country. In summer, the temperature rises to 40 degrees and above (from the central part to the southern coast). On the north coast, the temperature is not as high - about 25 degrees of heat. For Spain, very deep internal climatic differences are characteristic, and it only can be fully related to the Mediterranean climatic area. These differences are manifested both in temperature and in annual amounts of precipitation. On the extreme northwest The climate is mild and wet with weak fluctuations in temperature during the year and a large amount of precipitation. The permanent winds from the side of the Atlantic bring a lot of moisture, mainly in winter, when misty and cloudy weather prevails with frosting rains, almost without frost and snow. The average temperature of the coldest month is the same as in the north-west of France. Summer roast and wet, the average temperature is rarely above 16 degrees of heat. Annual precipitation exceeds 1070 mm, and in some places reaches 2000 mm. Completely different conditions in internal parts Countries - on the Plateau of the Old and New Castile and the Aragonian Plain. In these areas, the influence of the plate-butted relief, considerable height and local continental air affects. They are characterized by a relatively small amount of precipitation (no more than 500 mm per year) and sharp fluctuations in temperature by season. In the old Castile and on the Aragonian plain there are pretty cold winters with frost and strong, sharp winds; Summer roast and pretty dry, although the maximum of precipitation falls at this season of the year. In the new Castile, the climate is a bit softer, with a heavier winter, but also with a small amount of precipitation. Agriculture in all these areas needs artificial irrigation.

1.3. Minerals

Spain's subsoil is replete with mineral resources. Especially significant reserves of metal ores, whose deposits are associated with the exits of the folded base of the place or with volcanic rocks of mountain structures. On the northwestern outskirts, there are tin, tungsten and uranium ores within the North-West Outcasts of the Galli Massif. In the southern outskirts of the place stretched a strip of lead-zinc-silver deposits. There is also a major mercury field, which has world importance - Almaden. Iron ores are available in the north and south of Spain. They are confined to the structures of the Mesozoic and Alpine magmatic cycles. These are famous deposits of the Bilbao district on the northern slope of the Biscay mountains and in Almeria on the southern slope of the Betsky Cordiller. In the north in the deposits of carbon, filling the foothill depression of the Asturian Mountains, is the largest coal pool in the country. In addition, small stone coal deposits are on the southern slope of the mountains and in some other areas. In the Cenozoic sediments of intermountain and inturn depressions, the thickness of salts and brown coal lie. Significant stocks of potash salts are located within the Ebro Plain. However, it is worth noting that most mineral deposits in the country have very modest sizes and are quite exhausted, as many fields of other European regions, which makes Spain dependent on the export of minerals, mainly from North Africa.

2. Economy

Today's today Spain - Highly developed country. According to the total volume of industrial production in 1995, the country occupied the tenth place in the world and the fifth place in Western Europe. GNP per capita is $ 14,000. (1999). Basic successes are achieved in recent decades. After World War II, Spain was insulated. US did not provide the country to economic assistance (according to the Marshall plan) and Spain began to develop a closed self-sufficient economy. This led to a high degree of state intervention in market relations, an increase in the share of state ownership.

In the early 1960s, a stabilization plan was adopted, later known as the "Spanish Miracle". In 1960-1974 The economic indicators grew by an average of 6.6% per year, which was higher than any other country of the world (with the exception of Japan). The most important role was played by the opening Spain as a global resort center.

In 1959-1974 More than 3 million Spaniards left the country in search of work to send earned money to their homeland. The energy crisis of 1973 hit Spain, due to its dependence on other countries, very much, unemployment has grown to 21% in 1975. But in the 1980s. In Spain, the economic rise began again. Although growth numbers were lower than the indicators of the 1960s, they still remained the highest in Western Europe. But now the growth of production was accompanied by inflation and high unemployment (up to 22% of the able-bodied population).

In the 1990s. The country has become one of the EU leaders (although it is still a recipient, that is, it receives subsidies to support agriculture and some areas from pan-European funds).

In the country's economy, strong positions are occupied by the US, France, Germany, Great Britain, Switzerland. They own more than 50 percent of mechanical engineering and metallurgy enterprises. About 40% of the share capital accounts for the 8 largest Spanish financial and industrial and banking groups (Marce, Fierro, Uriko, Harriguez, Ruiz-Mateos, etc.).

In 2004, Spanish exports amounted to over 135 billion euros, imports - about 190 billion euros. Main partners in foreign trade - EU countries, USA, Latin America.

Large ports: Bilbao, Barcelona; Oil - Algeciras, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Tarragona, Coal - Gijon. Spain is one of the largest centers of international tourism (62 million hours in 1997, 95% of tourists from EU countries; major tourist centers - Madrid and Barcelona), as well as resorts - Costa Brava, Costa Dorada, Costa Blanca, Costa -Del-salt. In 2004, Spain visited 53.6 million foreign tourists (2nd place in the world). Industry revenues in 2004 - about 35 billion euros. More than 65% of tourists from EU countries. 1.3 million people are employed in this area.

Individual industry - Billet and export of cork bark.

The Spanish banking system is one of the most stable in Europe. Among its distinctive features, the following can be distinguished: a high degree of banking concentration along with a small number of credit institutions (395), a significant level of foreign exchange reserves (13.9 billion euros), an extensive network of branches of private banks and state savings tickets. The dominant role is played by national banks with 100% Spanish capital. The leader in the cost of market assets is the Financial Group "Bank of Santander Sentral Spain", which was formed in 1999 as a result of the merger of two large banks.

GDP - 798.67 billion € (2004). His increase was 2.6%.

2.1. Mining industry

The oldest industry is mining. Spainrich in minerals is one of the world leaders in mercury extraction (about 1.5 thousand tons per year; the main center is Almaden) and pyrite (about 3 million tons per year; mainly in the area of \u200b\u200bWales); In Europe, the extraction of polymetallic and uranium ores, silver is released. Iron (1.4 million tons in 1996; Vers. Biscayia, Santander, Lugo, Oviedo, Granada, Murcia), lead-zinc, tungsten copper, titanium ores, quartz, gold, potash salts, etc. Oil and gas are imported. The annual oil production is about 30 million tons, and covers less than 10 percent of the needs. Spain occupies the ninth place in the world and the first among the EU countries in the extraction of metal-containing raw materials. Energy is a fortieth place in the world.

2.2. Mechanical engineering

Shipbuilding is allocated among the engineering industries (old centers are located in the north of Countries: Bilbao, Gijon, Santander; New - in North-West: El Ferrol, Vigo, in the East: Cartagena, Valencia, Barcelona, \u200b\u200band in the south: Sevilla, Cadiz) Automotive (Production of cars, including the "Seat" concern Volkswagen 2.2 million in 1996; Centers: Barcelona, \u200b\u200bMadrid, Valladolid, Vitoria, Pammon, Vigo) and electrical industry. The production of equipment for the chemical, light, food industry and the production of building materials was also developed.