On the desktop is an almost finished model of an old sailboat. She carries shrouds and forduns, stays are neatly stacked on top of the shrouds. To finish with the standing rigging and proceed to the installation of the running rigging, we only have a little left - to equip the bowsprit. But is it such a small thing? Let's get a look…
bowsprit rigging
First of all, we lay lashings (water-wooling) on the bowsprit - a cable that goes around the bowsprit and passes through a hole in the kneediged or through a butt in the stem. Water-wooling consists of 9-11 hoses, crossing each other, and ends with a dozen more horizontal hoses. It's hard to come up with The best way for a strong connection of the bowsprit with the bow of the ship. That is why, starting from the 16th century, almost all sailboats of the Old and New Worlds were equipped with water-wooling.
 |
| The fore end of the brig "Mercury" - just above the main-elk-stay there is a water-wooling. |
A little later, in the 17th century, to counteract the thrust of the foresail and fore-stay, they began to install additional tackle - a water stay that held the bowsprit from below. At first, the water stay was a simple hoist, mounted on the bowdiged and bowsprit of the ship.
On the model, we draw a waterstay through the hole in the knjavdiged, splicing (splicing) the ends together and ending in the upper part with a stay-block. We install a paired block near the ezelgoft of the bowsprit. With the help of a thin cable (for us it's just a thread), we lash the blocks - and the water stay turns into a single whole! On models of English ships, we fill the water stay a little differently, with the help of a pair of ordinary yufers.
 |
| The bow of the battleship "Ingermanland" - the attachment of the water stay in the knyavdiged. |
The bowsprit rig will be somewhat more complicated if we have a model of a 19th century ship. On such a model, water-back stays must be installed, supporting a long bowsprit from the sides. Water-buckstays are fastened with hooks to the butts on the cheekbones of the ship and are stuffed with hoists on the ezelgoft of the bowsprit.
Do not forget about such an important piece of standing rigging as the back of the bowsprit. It was a kind of cable handrail, which served as insurance for sailors when walking on a bowsprit. On the one hand, the backrest is mounted on the bulkhead of the forecastle or on the stub bollard, on the other hand, by the butt on the bowsprit ezelgoft. Sometimes the back of the bowsprit in the middle can be supported by a guy attached to the forestay of the ship.
 |
| Brig "Mercury" - a twin backstay runs parallel to the bowsprit, water stays and water back stays are also visible. |
Rigging jib and bom jib
After rigging the bowsprit, it's time to move on to installing the standing rigging of the jib. To understand why an already long bowsprit was supplemented with a jib, let's turn to history ...
 |
| brig "Mercury" - in the place where the fore-moose-stay is attached, the lashing lashings are visible. Posting the jib-stay through the marting boom and the guide thimble under the bowsprit. |
In the 18th century, the bulky straight sails on the bowsprit were replaced by more efficient and comfortable jibs. But direct sails were not immediately abandoned - on the contrary, in order to put additional direct sails, the bowsprit was lengthened by installing a jib. In the spur of the jib there was a hole through which it was lashed with a bowsprit. In turn, the jib had to be reinforced with some additional tackle to compensate for the tension of the foremast stays. Such tackle was called the utlegar-stay or martin-stay. It was applied with fire to the kick of the jib and, to increase the spacing, was carried through the hole in the bowsprit shot - the marting boom, mounted on the bowsprit ezelgoft. Next, the martin stay was led through a guide block or thimble in the middle of the bowsprit and stuffed with hoists on the forecastle of the vessel. We will follow the same sequence on the model.
 |
| The battleship "Tsesarevich" - bowsprit has a double martin stay. |
A few words about the features of the wiring of the double martinstay. From the butt of the jib it passes through two shots of the marting boom spaced at an angle of about 100 °, then through two blocks on the bowsprit and ends with a pair of tackles on the forecastle.
If the ship carries a jib and bom jib, made from one piece of wood, we have to fit two simple martin stays. First, we carry out a bom-utlegar-stay. From the nok of the bom-utility, it goes through a hole in the marting boom and is stuffed with hoists on the right side of the tank. The jib stay, fixed at the top of the jib, must pass through another hole in the marting boom, higher than the previous one. We stuff it with hoists on the tank, but on the left side.
 |
To support the jib from the sides, we install special paired cables - backstays. The first pair of them was placed on the leg of the jib, long pendants were passed through the krengels on the blinda yard and, approximately 1 meter from the yard, ended with hoists. Paired blocks of these hoists were fastened with hooks - in butts on the front side of the crane beams, on small tank bits or on the cheekbones of the ship. The second pair of bakshatags was fixed for side points on the "jib-ring". (This was the name of the ring with a hook or roller, which moved freely along the jib and served to fasten the fore-wall-stay.) Further, the back stays were carried out in the same way through the second pair of crengels on the blind-yard, located closer to the jib, and finished, as usual, hoists.
 |
| "Saint Nicholas": posting backstays through the crengels on the blinda yard. |
To work with sails, the jib and bom jib must be equipped with feathers. The Perts fired on the butt of the jib and fastened it to the ezelgoft of the bowsprit. The second pair of pins were put on with fire on the nok of the bom-fitler and fixed to the upper part of the utlegary. The perts hung at about a height of 2 feet and did not have props, and in order to prevent the sailors' legs from slipping, knots - knobs were knitted on the perts.
"Is it possible to exactly repeat all the nuances of the rigging wiring on the model?" - you ask. Of course you can. But only if you carefully approach the choice of threads for the manufacture of rigging gear - they should be without noticeable pile, have the color and structure of a real twisted rope. Set the light threads aside immediately. Since the standing rigging was tinned, it ended up being black. Due to the slightly different composition of the range, the color of the standing rigging on French ships was dark brown.
For rigging, threads made of artificial fibers are best suited: they twist easily, are durable, their length changes little with fluctuations in temperature and humidity. But do not forget that synthetic rigging requires especially careful gluing of knots (they tend to spontaneously bloom).
And, finally, the well-known Hamlet question "To twist or not to twist?" I would answer it positively, since only twisted rigging looks realistic. Of course, on models smaller than 1:50 it is difficult to reproduce all the gradations of the thickness of the rigging gear, but this should at least be strived for!
Usually the diameter of the mainstay (the thickest cable on the ship) was calculated empirically: it was taken equal to 0.166 of the diameter of the mainmast in the patch. The thicknesses of the rest of the rigging gear will be calculated as a percentage of the diameter of the mainstay.
Standing rigging thicknesses
| Bowsprit | |
| Waterstay | 80% |
| Knights | 40% |
| Wooling | 18% |
| Blinda topmast | |
| Backstays | 20% |
| Guys | 16% |
| Guy lanyards | 8% |
| jib | |
| Martin-Stage | 20% |
| Backstays | 16% |
| Perth | 8% |
| foremast | |
| Foca stage | 80% |
| Guys | 40% |
| Guy lanyards | 20% |
| Fore topmast | |
| Fore-sten-stay | 40% |
| Guys | 20% |
| Guy lanyards | 10% |
| Forduny | 20% |
| Fore-bram-mastmast | |
| Fore-bram-wall-stay | 20% |
| Guys | 16% |
| Guy lanyards | 8% |
| Forduny | 16% |
| Main mast | |
| Mainstay | 100% |
| Kragstay | 75% |
| Guys | 50% |
| Guy lanyards | 25% |
| Mainmast | |
| Mainsail-stay | 50% |
| Guys | 25% |
| Guy lanyards | 13% |
| Forduny | 25% |
| Mainsail-bram-topmast | |
| Main-bram-wall-stay | 20% |
| Guys | 16% |
| Guy lanyards | 8% |
| Forduny | 16% |
| mizzen mast | |
| mizzen-stay | 40% |
| Guys | 25% |
| Guy lanyards | 13% |
| Cruise topmast | |
| Cruise-wall-stay | 20% |
| Guys | 16% |
| Guy lanyards | 8% |
| Forduny | 16% |
| Cruise-brahm-topmast | |
| Cruise-bram-wall-stay | 10% |
| Guys | 8% |
| Forduny | 8% |
Author - Dmitriy Kalmykov
Site Exclusive
Under the spars and rigging of the vessel is understood all the equipment moving or at rest - masts, cargo half-masts, yardarms, hafels, cargo booms, shrouds, stays with all the details related to them. This name has been preserved since the days of sailing ships, however, its meaning has changed significantly during this time. So, initially the spars and rigging of a sailing vessel ensured the advancement of the vessel, and now their main task on modern cargo ships is to place a cargo device, and on passenger ships, icebreakers, tugboats and similar floating craft - signaling equipment.
Armament of a sailing ship
a - armament of a barque with an auxiliary engine; b - types of sailing equipment; c - types of sailing ships.
1 - mizzen boom; 2 - mizzen; 3 - mizzen mast; 4 - mizzen hafel; 5 - cruise topsail; 6 - cruise topmast; 7 - mainsail-bram-topmast; 8 - grotto-bom-bram-ray; 9 - main-bom-bramsel; 10 - grotto-bram-ray; 11 - main-bramsel; 12 - cruise-bram-staysail; 13 - cruise-wall-staysail; 14 - apse; 15 - upper mainsail; 16 - lower mainsail; 17 - grotto; 18 - main topmast; 19 - main mast; 20 - upper grotto-mars-rai; 21 - lower grotto-mars-ray; 22 - grotto-rai; 23 - mainsail-bom-bram-staysail; 24 - mainsail-bram-staysail; 25 - mainsail-stay-sail; 26 - for-bom-bram-ray; 27 - fore-bram-topmast; 28 - fore-bom-bramsel; 29 - fore-bram-ray; 30 - fore-bramsel; 31 - for-bom-bram-stay; 32 - bom-jib-leer; 33 - upper fore-mars-ray; 34 - upper fore-Marseille; 35 - fore topmast; 36 - lower fore-mars-ray; 37 - lower fore-Marseille; 38 - foke ray; 39 - fore-mast; 40 - fork; 41 - fore-topmast-staysail; 42 - middle jib; 43 - jib; 44 - boom-jib; 45 - bowsprit; 46 - Latin sail; 47 - straight rake sail; 48 - luger or rake sail Tretyak; 49 - lug or rake sail quarter; 50 - sprint sail; 51 - gaff sail; 52 - guari; 53 - Bermuda sail; 54 - evers; 55 - logger; 56 - ketch; 57 - deuhmast hafel schooner; 58 - two-masted topsail schooner; 59 - brigantine (schooner brig); 60 - brig; 61 - three-masted gaff schooner; 62 - three-masted topsail schooner; 63 - three-masted topsail schooner; 64 - barquentine (schooner-bark); 65 - bark; 66 is a fully armed ship.
The main part of the spars is the mast. Depending on the purpose of use, there are signal, cargo and special masts made of wood or pipes made of steel or light metal. To absorb the forces arising from the roll and pitching in heavy seas, the masts are attached to the sides or in the center plane with the help of shrouds and stays, consisting of steel wire ropes. On the signal masts are placed signal and radio antenna yards, and often also a hafel for hoisting the country's flag. Fresh information rigging work with us. In addition, they have flag halyards and a holder for a lantern.
Spars and rigging of cargo ships
a - cargo and signaling devices of a cargo ship of an old design; b - a cargo ship with cargo booms and ship cranes.
The simplest design is tubular masts (Fig. below a), which have one cargo boom each in front and behind. To accommodate other cargo booms, a saling is mounted on the top of the mast, and a traverse is attached to the mast two or three meters above the deck. The ends of the traverse rest on short ventilation posts. Saling and traverse often consist of a single box beam (fig. below b). The most commonly seen bipedal masts usually lack standing rigging, thereby increasing visibility to the open deck. Sometimes when working with heavy cargo devices, stays are installed on the opposite side (fig. below c).
cargo masts
a - tubular mast; b - tubular mast with saling and traverse of the cargo boom; c - two-legged mast. 1 - antenna rail; 2 - ray; 3 - searchlight beam; 4 - observation post on the mast ("crow's nest"); 5 - guys; 6 - topmast; 7 - saling; 8 - ventilation column; 9 - the foundation of the cargo boom.
Cargo half-masts, unlike masts, are rarely equipped with topmasts and are installed in pairs outside the center plane of the ship between hatches or on hatches. As a rule, they do not have stays, but are often connected to each other by means of a connecting stay or traverse. Cargo half-masts are often used to ventilate the cargo hold; in this case, deck fan sockets are provided in them.
Cargo half-masts
a - the location of the half-masts; b - half-masts with a traverse; c - half-masts with hatchets and shrouds; d - half-masts without stays. 1 - topmast; 2 - traverse; 3 - cargo half-mast; 4 - toprik; 5 - guys.
The masts and half-masts are fastened with shrouds and stays, which in almost all cases consist of steel cables. They are attached at one end to the mast (saling) or to the half-mast with strong butts (cable-stayed butts), and at the other end - to the bases of the shrouds (shrouds) in the immediate vicinity of the bulwark. Shrouds or stays with butts are attached to the mast or shrouds with the help of lobes; in the presence of fork rope locks, lobes are not required. Between the shrouds or stays and shrouds are lanyards for pulling cables.
spars- a set of structures made of metal pipes, profiles and sheets installed on the upper deck of the ship and firmly connected to its hull. The spars of the ship include: masts with their armament (topmasts, yardarms, gaffs), shots, flagpole and guisstaff, cargo booms, davits, trapbeams, trawlbeams, etc.Rigging - a set of gear (cables) of all types, securely fastening individual parts of the spars in place and serving to rig and control them. Rigging is divided into running and standing.
The design of the spar and rigging depends on the size and class of the ship, as well as on the purpose of the spar itself with rigging. With the development of navigation and shipbuilding, the purpose and role of the spars with rigging are constantly changing, which entails their constructive changes.
Masts are the main type of ship spars. Large ships, as a rule, have two masts: the foremast (front, i.e., the first from the bow) and the mainmast (the second mast from the bow); small - one foremast. Masts are used for lifting visual signals, placing signal lights, radio and radar antennas, installing cargo arrows, and on sailing ships for lifting, fastening and controlling sails. On warships, masts are also intended to accommodate control posts for the ship and its combat assets.
Masts are installed in the diametrical plane of the ship vertically or with some inclination to the stern. Like all spars, the masts have undergone great changes in their development. Structurally, the masts are made single, tripod, four-legged, as well as in the form of tower-like mast structures. In the general case, the mast consists of strong vertical beams of the set, perceiving all the forces from weight, wind pressure and inertia forces during pitching, and from thin sheathing sheets. Mast set beams (legs) usually pass through the upper deck and are reinforced on the second deck.
Single mast (Fig. 1.26) - a steel pipe (or spar) waterproof at the seams, installed on small ships, auxiliary and sailing ships. Single masts are solid and composite. The lower end of the mast (spurs) passes through the upper deck and is attached to the middle deck (platform); on sailing ships - to the keel. The top end of the mast is called the top. To the top of the mast, if it is composite, the lower end of the topmast is attached, which is a continuation of the mast. Depending on which mast it is mounted on, the topmast is called the fore or mainmast, respectively. The topmast ends with a clod (cloth) - a wooden or metal disc, which has pulleys for signal halyards along the edges. On the klotik red and white klotik lanterns are installed. The upper part of the mast with the topmast is held in the center plane of the ship with the help of standing rigging.
Rice. 1.26. Single signal mast:
1,2 - topenants; 3 - klotik fire; 4 - antenna rail; 5 - topmast; 6 - signal rail; 7 - guys; 8 - signal halyards; 9 - steel pipe (or spar)
The tripod mast consists of three steel waterproof tubes. The upper ends are firmly fastened with a horizontal platform of steel sheets, which is called a marshal. The legs of the mast pass through the holes in the upper deck and are attached to the flooring of the middle deck (ship platform) with their lower ends. On the sites located along the entire length of the mast, there are: radio and radar antennas, rangefinders, searchlights, signal and navigation bridges and other control posts.
Masts on modern ships often have the shape shown in Fig. 1.27. The frame of the mast is sheathed with steel sheets on the outside. Such a mast has a large number of horizontal platforms on which radio and radar antennas are placed. To raise flags and signals, the mast has spreaders of different sizes, which act as yardarms.
Rice. 1.27. The mast of a modern ship:
1 - spreaders; 2, 3 - platforms and devices for placing radar antennas; 4 - steel sheathing sheets; 5 - radio antenna
Tower-like mast structures are a developed superstructure with platforms located in several tiers and representing enclosed spaces used for various combat and command posts.
R e and (slats) are metal or wooden in various sizes; fastened to the masts or topmasts in a horizontal position perpendicular to the diametrical plane of the ship. They are intended mainly for raising signals. On them are single-sheave blocks, in which the halyards are based from special braided non-twisting lines. The middle of the ray is called the top; the ends - with the right and left legs, respectively, to the sides of the ship. The legs of the yoke are supported by ray-topenants, the ends of which are attached to the ends of the yoke on the mast or topmast. Masts are armed with two or even three yards. The lower yard on the foremast is called the foremast; on the mainmast - mainsail. The upper yards are respectively called for-mars-yard, grotto-mars-yard.
The gafel is located on the main mast, below the main yard, at an angle to the mast and is held in the diametrical plane by erens backstays, which are attached to the gaff leg and go to the sides. The lower part of the gaff is called the heel, the upper one is called the kick; The gaff head is supported by topenant. A pulley is cut into the gaff nose, through which the halyard passes to raise the Naval flag on a campaign or gaff lights at night.
Flagpole - a metal hollow or wooden rod installed at the stern of a ship and designed to raise the Naval ensign when the ship is at anchor or against the wall. A clot is attached to the upper end of the flagpole (top). The design of the flagpole allows, if necessary, to quickly fill it up on the deck.
The guis rod is installed in the bow of the ship and serves to lift the guis, and at night - anchor light when the ship is anchored. When sailing at night, a box-type fire is lit in the rear of the guisstock to orient the helmsman on the ship, going to the front wake.
Standing rigging(Fig. 1.28) - gear designed to support and fasten the spars in a vertical, horizontal or other position. Standing rigging is not permanently attached and is not passed through blocks; these include: shrouds, stays, backstays, stay-karnak, topenants, strings of yards, etc.
Rice. 1.28. Standing rigging scheme:
1 - stay-karnak; 2 - headstay; 3 - topenants of yards; 4 - ray strings; 5 - guys; 6 - lanyards; 7 - backstay
Bows - gear that strengthens the masts and topmasts so that they do not lean towards the sides. The upper ends of the shrouds are attached to the butts of the yoke on the top of the mast or topmast; the lower ends - through screw lanyards to special rims (shrouds), which are attached to the bulwark, side plating or deck at the sides.
For r - shtag and - tackle located in the diametrical plane of the ship, which do not allow the mast and topmast to tilt towards the stern of the ship.
Backstay - side gear, going from the top of the mast to the side a little behind the mast and holding the mast together with the guys in the center plane of the ship and preventing it from tilting towards the bow of the ship.
Shag - karnak - horizontal tackle, wound up between the masts, which holds the mast and topmast and prevents them from tilting towards the bow (stern) of the ship.
Topenants and strings are used to hang and hold the yards in a position perpendicular to the diametrical plane of the ship.
Standing rigging is always made of rigid steel cable, which has great strength and little flexibility.
Running rigging- gear in motion and intended for servicing and changing the position of parts of the spars, as well as for lifting and lowering cargo, boats, boats, ladders, signals, sails. Running rigging includes: halyards (signal, etc.), falls of hoists, hordeni, sloopback stays, shot-brace, chipmunk, quickdraws, sheets and other mobile gear. For running rigging, flexible steel and growth gel cables are used.
Flemish caracca - shrouds
Guys - stretch marks that hold the mast so that it does not fall, which is good.
A. Nekrasov. Adventures of Captain Vrungel
Carrack model from Nuremberg ( Schlusselfelder Schiff), silver, gilding, 1503. The author is presumably Albrecht Dürer Sr.
The design of fastening the shrouds of the mainmast to the hull of the Flemish carrack is unusual. The first few gears are attached directly to the board, the rest - to a wide channel.
The appearance of a wide horizontal line in an engraving believed to date from the wedding of Charles the Bold and Margaret of York in 1468, with a detailed depiction of ufers on it, is rather unusual. The shrouds at that time were fixed mainly on the deck or directly on the sides, and it was impossible to recognize the methods by which they were stuffed in the available images (you can read about the shrouds on the galleys and the terms associated with this process in one of our previous posts). Usually artists limited themselves to some incomprehensible zigzags. One of the first reliably dated (1493) images of a horizontal riverbed is Michael Wolgemuth's engraving "Ulysses and Circe" in the "Nuremberg Chronicle" by Hartmann Schedel.
Woodcut from Schedel's Nuremberg Chronicle ( Schedel"schen Weltchronik), sheet 41 recto
But even on it, a device for stuffing shrouds is just some kind of zigzags around the gear.
The unusual image of the Flemish caracca is reinforced by the difference in the style of this engraving from the style of other surviving works of the Master WA: the image of the caracca does not correspond in any way with the period of 1468, but rather corresponds to the style of the last works of the Master, falling on the 1485-1490s. The problem can be solved by assuming that the original image, made for the wedding, was redone in later years. If you look again at the enlarged image of the caracca in the area where the shrouds are attached
then you can see the traces of the removed fragment of the image between the cargo port in the side of the karakka and the channel above it. Partially removed detail apparently represented a cargo port, which was located higher and closer to the stern than the port in the final image. Moving the port to a new location can be easily explained. Loading heavy objects through the cargo hatch in the side was often carried out using hoists on the mainsail, which was used as a cargo boom. The wide channel, as depicted in the engraving, located immediately above the old image of the port, made loading through this port impossible. Apparently, the riverbed is a later addition to the engraving, and along with it, changes were made to the location of the cargo port.
Now about the very method of fastening the guys. Let us briefly consider its evolution. The increase in the size of sailing ships and the growth in connection with this of the tension forces of the standing rigging required new ways of stuffing the cables. There are three such methods in total. The first was similar to the method used when stringing strings. musical instruments. The ends of the guys were wound on pegs (like pegs on a violin). The tension of the gear was carried out with the help of lambs attached to these pins, which also looks very much like a tuning technique for stringed instruments. A good illustration of this option can be seen in an engraving by Hans Burkmayr (1511), located in the book of commentaries of a Strasbourg preacher. Geiler von Kaysersberg to Sebastian Brant's poem " ship of fools» .
Thus, in this case, the tension of the cables was carried out using a kind of collar, a small windlass, equipped, as some researchers believe (H. H. Brindly, 1913), with a ratchet mechanism (ratchet with a dog). However, it cannot be ruled out. that the pins were held in position by a conventional friction clutch, which was more natural in that era. It should be noted that no other images of a similar method of tensioning the cables were found, so a hypothesis was put forward that the image resurrects a long-forgotten, perhaps historically first, method.
Another possible way of stuffing the shrouds was the way of spinning the tackle. To understand its essence, consider the cable-stayed cables that existed at that time. In principle, there are two types of twisted cables: left descent and right descent. In 1973, a special international standard ISO 2 was even introduced to designate these two types of cable winding:
The capital Latin letter S denoted the cables of the left descent, and the capital Z denoted the cables of the right. These letters were chosen because the direction of the line in their middle corresponds to the direction of the strand in the corresponding cable. It’s more convenient for us, I think, there will be another rule: if you look along the cable, then for the cable of the left descent, the strand, moving away from the observer, goes in the left direction, and for the right one, respectively, in the right direction. (For connoisseurs of rifled weapons, there is a direct analogy with determining the direction of cutting the barrel: the right one - “left, up, right” (historically it is Russia, the USA, etc.) and the left one (England, France, etc.)) and, as a rule, they were used for the manufacture of shrouds.
If the cable of the right descent (a) is “twisted” counterclockwise (b), then it becomes shorter, the tension of the cable increases, if it is clockwise (c), the cable lengthens. This property of twisted cables was used for stuffing the cables.
A toggle was attached to the lower end of the shroud, which passed through the hole in the board (we already talk about toggles). By rotating the toggle in the desired direction, the cable tension was increased or decreased.
There are images and even models of sailing ships with a similar way of stuffing the shrouds. For example, in the illuminated Psalters of Luttrell(1320-1340) the miniature for Psalm 89 just shows shrouds with toggles.
Luttrell Psalter (British Library), miniature fragment for Psalm 89
And of course, a wonderful silver carrack model from Nuremberg, a photo of which is given at the beginning of the post, and an enlarged image is given below.
Kohlhausen (H. Kohlhausen. Nürnberger Goldschmiedekunst des Mittelalters undder Durerzeit 1240 bis 1540, Berlin, 1968) suggests that the possible author of the model, Albrecht Dürer Sr., took as a model for it an engraving of the Flemish caracca by Master WA. However, there is one obstacle: on the Dürer model, the method of fastening the shrouds with the help of toggles is used, and on the Flemish carrack, as we have seen, lufers and a channel are used.
And, finally, consider the third way to tension the cables - using blocks. Initially, the guys were stuffed using a single-pulley block, which, as you know, gives a twofold gain in strength. Further improvement of this method led to the replacement of a simple block with a pair of lufers - pulleyless blocks with three through holes in the cheeks, located in the form of a triangle, through which the lanyard's lopars are passed (see the above enlarged image of the Flemish carrack in the shroud area). The new design theoretically made it possible to achieve a fivefold gain in strength.
Historically, the introduction of the lufers coincided in time with the introduction of the channels for their fastening: increasing the tension of the shrouds in the new method of their fastening threatened to tear off the side plating, so the blocks were no longer fastened overboard, but on a special horizontal board - the ruslen. Initially, this board was attached to the board with a face, vertically. We see this method of fastening, for example, on a karakk from the painting by Hans Memling "The Seven Joys of Mary"
Hans Memling, The Seven Joys of Mary (1480). Old Munich Pinakothek
The artist depicted eighteen different episodes from the life of Mary and Christ within one huge board. We are interested in the scene in the background depicting the loading of the Magi and their horses onto the ships (on the way back from the Holy Land after the worship of Christ).
The resolution of the available reproductions from this picture is not enough to see the ships on the horizon in detail. Therefore, we give an illustration from the article by A. W. Sleeswyk The Carrack of Hans Memling (1987)
Caracci of the Magi (1480)
Although in this image we do not particularly distinguish the details of interest to us, it is proposed to take a word that on the left ship the shrouds are fastened through the yufers, which are fixed on the board, with its plane pressed against the ship's boron.
We will continue this topic next time.
Sailing ships include ships and boats (boats) driven by the force of the wind acting on the sails. In this case, the ship can carry sails on one, two, three or more vertical masts. Depending on the type sailing rig The following sailing vessels are distinguished: - a five-masted ship (five masts with straight sails); - a five-mast barque (four masts with straight sails, one, aft, with slanting); - a four-masted ship (four masts with straight sails); - four-masted barque (three masts with straight sails, one with oblique); - a ship (three masts with straight sails); - barque (two masts with straight sails, one with oblique); - barquentine (schooner-bark; one mast with straight and two with oblique sails); - jackasses - a schooner, more precisely, a three-masted topsail schooner (all masts with slanting sails and several upper straight sails on the foremast); - brig (two masts with straight sails); - brigantine (schooner-brig: one mast with straight sails, one with oblique); - bombard (one mast almost in the middle of the vessel with direct sails and one, shifted to the stern, with oblique ones); - a schooner, more precisely, a gaff schooner (two masts with oblique sails); - a schooner, more precisely, a two-masted topsail schooner (masts with oblique sails and several upper straight sails on the foremast); - caravel (three masts: foremast with direct sails, the rest - with Latin ones); - "trabaccolo" (two masts with luger, i.e. rake, sails); - xebec (three masts: fore and main masts with latin sails, mizzen mast with slanting); - felucca (two masts inclined towards the bow, with latin sails); - tartan (one mast with a large latin sail); - tender (one mast with slanting sails); - "bovo" (two masts: front with latin sail, rear with gaff or latin sail); - "navisello" (two masts: the first - in the bow, strongly inclined forward, carries a trapezoidal sail attached to the main mast; main mast - with a Latin or other oblique sail); - "balansella" (one mast with a latin sail); - sloop (one mast with slanting sails); - iol (two masts with slanting sails, the smaller one - the mizzen mast - stands behind the helm); - ketch (two masts with slanting sails, and the mizzen mast is in front of the helm); - dinghy (one mast with a gaff sail is moved to the bow); - luger (three masts with raked sails, used in France in coastal navigation). In addition to the listed sailboats, there were also large seven-, five- and four-masted schooners, mostly of American origin, carrying only slanting sails. Sailing armament
The totality of all the sails of a ship is called sailing armament. All sailing ships according to the type of their sailing weapons are divided into ships with direct, oblique and mixed weapons. Sailing rigging is called direct or shipborne, in which straight sails are the main ones, and oblique auxiliary ones. The classic examples of direct sailing weapons were battleships with three masts, and smaller warships - frigates, corvettes and brigs. Oblique is the armament in which the main ones are oblique sails. These include schooners, tenders, keches, iols, yachts. Mixed armament ships include barkentines and brigantines. Sailing armament of the ship: Bom-jib; jib; fore topmast staysail; fore staysail; fok - the lower rectangular sail on the foremast; fore-marseille - the second straight sail from the bottom, located on the fore-topmast; fore-bramsel - the third sail located on the fore-bram-topmast; fore-bom-bramsel - the fourth straight sail, located on the fore-bom-bram-topmast; mainsail; mainsail-stay-sail; main-bram-staysail; mainsail - the lower rectangular sail on the mainmast; main topsail; main-bramsel; main-bom-bramsel; apsel - a slanting sail between the main and mizzen masts; kruysel - direct sail; cruise-bramsel; cruise-bom-bramsel; mizzen - lower oblique sail (oblique mizzen). Direct sails Direct sails have a quadrangular, rectangular or trapezoidal shape and are attached to the yards with their upper side. Such sails are installed across the vessel. The lower part of the sail is usually slightly curved upwards. With the help of sheets and tacks, it is attached to the underlying yard or to the deck of the ship. The turns of the direct sails to the desired position relative to the wind are carried out together with the yards with the help of gear called braces and yards fixed on the legs. Straight sails are named after the yards to which they are attached. The sails fore, mainsail and mizzen are called lower sails, and the rest (marseilles, bramsels and bom-bramsels) are called upper sails. With the increase in the displacement of ships, the power and the number of artillery on them, the area of \u200b\u200bsailing weapons also increased. For example, in the initial period of Petrine shipbuilding (the end of the 17th century), ships carried only two straight sails on the foremast and mainmasts, at the beginning of the 18th century they were already set on three, and from the end of the 18th century and the first half of XIX centuries - four on three masts. On tea clippers and barges, the number of direct sails reached 6-7 on each mast. In the time of Peter the Great and up to the end of the 18th century, two more direct sails were hoisted in the bow of the ship (on a bowsprit) - the lower blind and the bom-blind. The lower blind was placed under the bowsprit on the blind yard, and the bom blind was placed on the bom blind yard mounted on the bowsprit topmast. Since the end of the 18th century, these sails have not been set, but instead of them, between the fore mast and the elongated bowsprit (with the help of a jib and bom jib), they raise triangular slanting sails - jibs and staysails. Direct sails also include additional sails - foxes, which are added to the main direct sails with a fair wind. They are placed on the sides of the main direct sails on special spars - fox-spirits, advanced from the yards. Liesel was placed only on the fore and main masts. Lisel from the port side consist of: Under-lisel; marsa fox; bram fox; shot; slats under fox; marsa-lisel-alcohol; laths of mars-foxle; bram-lisel-alcohol; bram-foxle slats. Details of direct sails: Lower sail; upper sail; lyktros; upper luff; filing; side luffs; lower luff; guys; boats; reef season; reef krengels; krengels of reef-hoists; krengels spruyta boulen; corner crengels; rope krengels; krengels with a thimble. Ship structure
Longitudinal section of a two-deck sailing ship of the line of the late 18th century.: Kiel; stem; princediged; starnpost sternpost; aft deadwood; nasal deadwood; admiral's cabin; wardroom; steering wheel; steering; aft hook-camera; aft bomb cellar; rope box; nasal hook-camera; bow bomb cellar. Bow and stern parts of a set of a sailing vessel: Falshkil; keel; fortimbers; nasal deadwood; kilson; falstem-knitsa; falstem; stem; grep; princediged; fox-indiged (support of the nasal figure); beams; pillers; aft deadwood; keel heel; sternpost; old book. The middle part of the body in cross section has almost round contours. The bulwark is somewhat littered inward, i.e. the width of the waterline is somewhat greater than in the area of the upper deck. This was done so that the guns mounted on the upper deck did not go beyond the width of the waterline. Bulwark of a sailing ship of the 18th century: Waterweiss; beams; bulwark velvet; bulwark racks; bed net; hanging beds. The main part of the hull set of a sailing ship is the keel - a longitudinal beam of rectangular section, running from bow to stern. Along the sides of the keel there are long grooves (tongues), into which the first row of outer skin boards, which are called the sheet pile belt, enters. To protect against damage, a strong oak board, a false keel, was attached to the keel from below. The bow of the keel ends with a stem, which is a prism-shaped beam. The lower part of the stem could be curved in an arc or at an angle. Attached to the stem from the inside is the inner part of the stem - deadwood - a complex structure made of thick beams, forming a smooth transition from the keel to the hull. In front of the stem, a water cutter is fortified, the upper part of which is called knyavdiged. In the upper part of the knyavdigeda, a nose decoration - a figure - was installed. In the rear part of the keel, a bar called a sternpost is installed vertically to it or with a slight inclination into the stern. The outer part of the sternpost is somewhat expanded to protect the rudder, hung on the sternpost. The stern and stem of a wooden sailing ship consist of several parts. Rezenkil was applied over and along the keel. Frames were attached to him and the deadwoods, which were composite on ancient ships. In the middle of the ship's hull, somewhat closer to the bow, they placed the widest frame - the midship frame. For the transverse fastening of the ship's set, beams were used, the deck was laid on them. In the longitudinal direction, the frames were fastened with stringers. After completing the assembly of the ship's set, they began to sheath the hull with oak boards. The dimensions of the boards depended on the size of the ship: their length was 6-8 m, width 10-25 cm. The extreme ends of the boards entered the tongues of the fore and stern and were fastened with dowels made of galvanized iron or copper. In the area of the waterline and under the cannon ports, the planks of the skin alternated with thickened boards - velvets. The deck flooring was made of pine or teak boards, they were attached to the beams with metal dowels or bolts, which were recessed from above and covered with wooden plugs. For bulwark sheathing on wooden ships, relatively thin boards mounted on racks were used. The bulwark velvet is the support of the bulwark; it was customary to paint its outer surface. Above the bulwark there was a bed net, in which the sailors folded rolled hanging bunks, which protected them from enemy bullets in battle. Spars are all wooden parts used to carry sails, flags, raise signals, etc. The spars include: masts, topmasts, yards, gaffs, booms, bowsprits, utlegari, fox spirits and shots. 
The mast is a vertical or slightly inclined spar to the stern, which serves as the basis for attaching other parts of the spar (topmasts, yards) and setting sails. The masts of large sailing ships with direct armament reached a height of 60 m or more with a thickness of the lower part up to 1 m. The masts were made composite of several trees continuing each other in height. The lower tree was called a column or simply a mast, and the continuation was called topmasts. Depending on the size of the vessel and the type of sailing equipment, the number of masts may vary. Each mast has its own name. So, on a three-masted ship, the first mast from the bow of the ship is called the fore mast, the second is the main mast, the third, smallest, is the mizzen mast. Mast device: Lower mast (column); trunnion; iron yokes; chicks; long salings; spreaders; ezelgoft; topmast; bram topmast; bom-brahm-topmast; flagpole; klotik; wooling; wooden yoke; fish; scale mount; knitting wooling. The highest mast has always been the main mast. Its height for three-masted ships with direct armament was determined by the length of the ship along the gondek, folded with its greatest width and divided in half. The height of the fore and mizzen masts, together with their tops, was determined by the height of the main mast. So the length of the fore mast was 8/9, and the mizzen mast was 6/7 of the length of the main mast. These proportions were often changed at the discretion of the builder. The word "fore" is added to the names of spars, parts of rigging and sails related to the fore mast, but strengthened above the mars platform. "Bram" - the word added to the names of the spars, rigging or sails, indicates their belonging to the third knee from the bottom. "Bom" - indicates belonging to the fourth tribe from below. 
The lower masts, as well as bowsprits for strength, were made of several beams, tied together with bandages - cable vulpings. The lower end of the mast - the spur - ended in a trunnion, which was inserted into the steps - a nest located on the kilson. The top of the mast is called the top. At its top is a trunnion, on which an ezelgoft is worn, connecting the mast to the topmast. On both sides of the mast, curly fittings called chiks were attached, to them - two longitudinal beams - long-saling, and a mars platform or simply mars was laid on the long-salings. Previously, on sailing ships with direct sails, Mars had the appearance of a round basket. Around the middle of the XVIII century. mars are beginning to be made almost rectangular, only the bow was rounded. Three-masted ships carried three mars, which were named according to their belonging to one or another mast: there was a fore-mars on the fore-mast, a main-mars on the main-mast and a cruise-mars on the mizzen-mast. Mars details: Lower mast (column); chicks; long salings; spreaders; dog holes; Mars; masthead; ezelgoft; topmast. Connection of a topmast with a bram-mastmast: Topmast; chicks; long salings; spreaders; bram topmast; ezelgoft; bram guys; schwitz-sorrel-sling. All the topmasts were also connected to each other with the help of salings and ezelgofts, but smaller. Ezelgoft is a wooden clip with two holes: a square one, into which the top of the lower mast is inserted, and a round one, into which the next topmast is passed. Salings and ezelgofts, depending on their belonging to a particular mast, are called: for-saling, for-bram-saling, mast ezelgoft, fore-sten-ezelgoft, cruise-sten-ezelgoft, bowsprit ezelgoft (connecting bowsprit with utlegar ) etc. A bowsprit is a horizontal or somewhat inclined beam (an inclined mast) protruding from the bow of a sailing vessel and serving to carry straight sails - blind and bom-blind. Until the end of the XVIII century. the bowsprit consisted of only one tree with a blind topmast. From the end of the XVIII century. the bowsprit is lengthened with a jib and then a bom jib. Blind and bom-blind are no longer placed on it, it serves to carry out the stays of the foremast and its topmast, as well as to fasten the bow triangular sails - jibs and staysails. The bowsprit itself was attached to the bow of the vessel with the help of a water-wooling made of a strong cable, and later (XIX century) and chains. Length and diameter of the bowsprit There are different information about the size of the bowsprit. According to Montaigne, on merchant ships the bowsprits had 3/5 of the length of the main mast, and their diameters were 1 "less; on military ships - 8/9 of the length of the foremast. Dumel de Monceau indicates the length of the bowsprit is 1.5 times the length of the midship beam, the diameter is the average between the diameters of the main and foremasts. The greatest thickness was above the stem, to the bow it decreased by half. The bowsprit spur was a foot from the foremast on the first deck. According to Kort, the total length was to be 1 1/5 of the length of the midship beam, with a length equal to the midship beam should protrude beyond the vessel. The diameter was the average between the diameters of the main and foremasts, and its decrease was 1/6. The wager gave the length of the bowsprit 1.565 of the length of the midship beam, and the diameter of 1/22 of this value. According to D. Steel, ships with more than 80 guns had a bowsprit length of 7/11 of the main mast, and smaller ships 3/5 of this mast. For ships with 64 to 100 guns, Steel gives diameters 2" smaller than the diameter of the mainmast, while on ships with less than 50 guns, both the mainmast and the bowsprit adhere to the same diameter. The reduction in this diameter was in the first quarter of the bowsprit 60/61, in the middle of 11/12, in the third quarter of 4/5 and at the end of 5/9. The spur of the bowsprit was 6/7 of its diameter. In the transitional period from the topmast to the topmast, they were often carried together.At the same time, the topmast was fastened with iron yokes to the side of the bowsprit and passed through the topmast of the topmast.This design can be seen on models until 1730. Later, the topmast disappears, decreases and turns into a guis-rod. In the British Navy, the jib was placed above the bowsprit. Continental ships mostly had a huis-rod on the knee on the bowsprit and therefore the jib was carried on the starboard side at an angle of 45 R. For the same reason, the ezelgoft was placed diagonally, and not perpendicular to the axis of the bowsprit. The length of the English jib at the beginning of the century was 6 feet less than the width of the ship (the length of the midship beam), and later from 7/10 to 5/7 of the length of the bowsprit. The diameter was 1/8 "for each yard of its length. This diameter referred to the inner third of the harness, i.e. from the spur to the ezelgoft. Further to the foot, it decreased: in the 1st quarter 40/41, in the 2nd quarter 11 /12, in the 3rd quarter 5/6 and on the leg 2/3 of the diameter.E. The bet for the vessel "Real Louis" gives the length of the jib equal to the length of the midsection beam, and the thickness is 1/48 of the length.For a vessel with a midship length -beam at 46 feet, it gives a length of 1.2 lengths of the midsection beam and a diameter equal to 1/44 of the length.According to Kort, the length of the jib was equal to 1 length of the midsection beam, and the thickness was 1/48 of the length. Until 1735, the English jib was round along its entire length. Then the spurs were made octagonal in length of 3.5 diameters. At 1.5 diameters from the butt of the jib, shoulders ("stop") were placed for the fore-bram-stay. The shoulders until about 1775 were parallel, and after that they were tapered, turned to the stern. Immediately after the shoulders there was a vertical cutout of the pulley-gata with a pulley for the "jib-ring" hordeum. Another pulley-gat with a pulley was 1.5 diameters from the spur and was located horizontally. He served for the halyard of the jib. In the back of the spur there was also a horizontal hole for the lashing jib. Bowsprits, masts and topmasts on a sailing vessel are fixed in a certain position with the help of special gear called standing rigging spars. Standing rigging includes: shrouds, forduns, stays, backstays, perts, as well as jib and bom-jib of the lifeline. Once wound up, standing rigging always remains stationary. It is made from a thick vegetable cable. Standing rigging of a 90-gun two-deck battleship of the 18th - 19th centuries: Water stays; martin stay; martin-stay from bom-utlegar (or lower backstay); fore-stay; fore-moose-stay; fore-elk-stay-stay (serves as a lifeline for fore-topmast-staysail); fore-wall-stay; jib rail; fore-bram-wall-stay; bom-jib-leer; for-bom-brahm-sten-stay; mainstay; main-elk-stay; grotto-moose-wall-stay; main-wall-stay; grotto-bram-wall-stay; main-bom-bram-wall-stay; mizzen-stay; cruise-wall-stay; cruise-bram-wall-stay; cruise-bom-bram-wall-stay; water backstays; utlegar-backstays; bom-utlegar-backstays; fok guys; fore-sten-shrouds; fore-bram-sten-shrouds; for-sten-forduny; for-bram-sten-forduny; for-bom-brahm-sten-forduny; main shrouds; grotto-sten-guy; grotto-bram-sten-guy; grotto-sten-forduny; grotto-bram-sten-forduny; grotto-bom-bram-sten-forduny; mizzen guys; cruise-wall-shrouds; cruise-bram-wall-shrouds; cruise-wall-forduny; cruise-brahm-sten-forduny; cruise-bom-bram-sten-forduny. Standing rigging is called shrouds, which strengthen masts, topmasts and bram-topmasts from the sides and somewhat behind. Depending on which tree the shrouds are holding, they receive an additional name: fore-shrouds, fore-sten-shrouds, etc. The shrouds also serve to lift sailors onto the masts and topmasts when working with sails. For this purpose, across the shrouds at a certain distance from each other, there are hemp, wooden or metal veneers. Hemp hemp was tied to the shrouds with a hemp knot at a distance of 0.4 m from one another. The lower shrouds (hemp) were the thickest on sailing ships, their diameter reached 90-100 mm. The wall-shrouds were made thinner, and the bram-wall-shrouds were even thinner. The faded ones were thinner than their shrouds. The topmasts and bram-masts are additionally held from the sides and somewhat behind by forduns. The upper ends of the shrouds and forduns are attached to the mast or topmast with the help of ogons (loops) worn on the tops. Shrouds, wall-shrouds and bram-wall-shrouds must be paired, i.e. made from one piece of cable, which is folded in half. If the number of shrouds from each side is odd, then the last shroud to the stern is made split, i.e. single. The same rule applies to forduns. The number of shrouds and forduns depends on the height of the mast and the carrying capacity of the vessel. Guys and forduns were stuffed (fitted) with cable hoists on yufers - special blocks without pulleys with three holes for a cable lanyard. In the old days, on all military sailing ships and large merchant ships, in order to increase the angle at which the lower shrouds and forduns go to the masts, powerful wooden platforms were strengthened from the outside of the side of the ship, at deck level. They were fastened with shrouds forged from iron strips. The lower end of the shrouds was attached to the board, and the lufers were attached to their upper ends so that the latter almost touched with their lower part with the channels. The upper lufers are tied into shrouds and forduns with the help of fires and benzels (brands). The shrouds of the topmast were equipped in the same way as the lower shrouds, but their yufers were somewhat smaller. The standing rigging that supports the spars in the diametrical plane in front is called the stay, which, like the lower shrouds, was made of a thick cable. Standing rigging also includes perts - plant cables on yards, on which sailors stand while working with sails on yards. Usually one end of the perth is attached to the leg of the yard, the other - to the middle of the yard. Perths are supported by props - pieces of cable attached to the yard. 
Bowsprit standing rigging serves to support and reinforce bowsprit spars. It consists of stays, backstays, perts, etc.: Water stays; water backstays; utlegar-stay; utlegar-backstay; bom-utlegar-stay; martin backstays; bom-utlegar-backstays; upper blind-backstay; lower blind-backstay; feathers of the bom-fitler; feathers of the jogger; lop stays. Water stays - standing rigging that holds the bowsprit from below, intended to counteract the thrust of the fore and fore topstands and is a hoist. Water-backstay - tackle of the standing rigging of the bowsprit, holding it from the sides. Utlegar-stay and bom-utlegar-stay - tackle supporting the jib and bom-utlegar from below. Utlegar-backstay, martin-backstay, bom-utlegar-backstay, upper and lower blinda-backstay - gear holding bowsprit spars from the sides. Perths of the jib and bom-jib, lop stays - tackle that serves as a lifeline when sailors move along the bowsprit. Running rigging - tackle for sail control: Bom-jib-half; bom-jib-sheet; jib sheet; for-topmast-staysail-sheet; fore staysail sheet; fore-sheet; fore-tack; focal knock-hordes; fore bull-hordes; foca-gits; foca bowline; for-marsa-gits; for marsa bowline; reef pendant of hoists - the end of the tackle, based between the blocks, to pull up the sails when taking reefs; for-brahm-gits; for-bram-bulin; for-bom-brahm-gits; reef seasons (reef shters); mainsheet; mainsail; grotto-nok-pride; grotto-bull-pride; grotto-gits; grotto bowline; grotto-Marsa-Gita; grotto marsa bowline; grotto-brahm-gita; grotto-brahm-bulin; grotto-bom-brahm-gits; mizzen-gits; kruysel-gits; cruisel bowline; kruys-brahm-gits; cruise-brahm-bulin; cruise-bom-brahm-gits. The running rigging of sail control includes halyards, sheets, tacks, hordes, gits and bowlinis. The halyards are called gear, with the help of which the sails (jib and staysails), flags and signals are raised and lowered. Sheets serve to control straight (lower) and slanting sails, which pull them to the stern. Jibs and staysails have two sheets passing from one and the other side of the side or rails. These sheets are usually made double. In oblique sails with a boom, where the clew of the sail is attached to the foot of the boom, a boom sheet attached to the boom is used to control the sail. The clews of the fore and mainsail are pulled in addition to the sheet by tacks, which are designed to pull the corners of the lower sails in the direction of the bow, opposite to the sheets. Tacks are double (and then they are carried out like sheets) or single. In the latter case, the root end of the tack is fixed in the clew. The main tacks are pulled at the sides near the fore mast, and the fore tacks are pulled on the tank, through the block on the tack bokanz (a short spar horizontal tree protruding in the bow of the ship from each side to stretch the windward angle of the fore by means of the fore tack). Hordens and gits are used for picking up the luffs and leech and clews when harvesting sails and taking reefs. Bulini - tackle located on the leech at the bottom of the straight sails, designed to stretch the sail into the wind so that the ship can sail steeply into the wind.
