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Nowadays, new aircraft are appearing, including those made using Stealth technology to reduce visibility.
Passenger supersonic aircraft
There are only two known mass-produced passenger supersonic aircraft that performed regular flights: the Soviet Tu-144 aircraft, which made its first flight on December 31, 1968 and was in operation from 1978 to 1978 and performed its first English flight two months later - on March 2, 1969. French Concorde (French Concorde - “agreement”), which made transatlantic flights from 2003 to 2003. Their operation made it possible not only to significantly reduce flight time on long-distance flights, but also to use unloaded air space at high altitudes (≈18 km), while the main airspace used by airliners (altitudes 9-12 km) was already heavily congested in those years. Also, supersonic aircraft flew along straight routes (outside air routes).
Despite the failure of several other former and existing projects of passenger supersonic and transonic aircraft (Boeing 2707, Boeing Sonic Cruiser, Douglas 2229, Lockheed L-2000, Tu-244, Tu-344, Tu-444, SSBJ, etc.) and withdrawal from operation of aircraft of two implemented projects, were developed earlier and there are modern projects of hypersonic (including suborbital) passenger airliners (for example, ZEHST, SpaceLiner) and military transport (landing) rapid response aircraft. A firm order for 20 units was placed in November 2015 for the Aerion AS2 passenger business jet under development, with a total cost of $2.4 billion, with deliveries to begin in 2023.
Theoretical problems
Flight to supersonic speed, unlike subsonic, occurs under conditions of different aerodynamics, since when the aircraft reaches the speed of sound, the aerodynamics of the flow change qualitatively, due to which aerodynamic drag increases sharply, kinetic heating of the structure from the friction of the air flow flowing at high speed also increases, and the aerodynamic focus shifts , which leads to loss of stability and controllability of the aircraft. In addition, such a phenomenon, unknown before the creation of the first supersonic aircraft, as “wave drag” appeared.
Therefore, achieving the speed of sound and effective stable flight at near- and supersonic speeds were impossible by simply increasing engine power - new design solutions were required. As a result, the appearance of the aircraft changed: characteristic straight lines and sharp corners appeared, in contrast to the “smooth” shapes of subsonic aircraft.
It should be noted that the problem of creating an effective supersonic aircraft cannot be considered resolved until now. The creators have to make a compromise between the requirement to increase speed and maintain acceptable takeoff and landing characteristics. Thus, the conquest of new frontiers in speed and altitude by aviation is associated not only with the use of a more advanced or fundamentally new propulsion system and a new structural layout of aircraft, but also with changes in their geometry in flight. Such changes, while improving the aircraft's performance at high speeds, should not worsen their performance at low speeds, and vice versa. Recently, creators have abandoned reducing the wing area and the relative thickness of their profiles, as well as increasing the wing sweep angle of aircraft with variable geometry, returning to low-sweep wings and a large relative thickness, if satisfactory maximum speed and service ceiling values have already been achieved. In this case, it is considered important that a supersonic aircraft have good performance at low speeds and low drag at high speeds, especially at low altitudes.
“Turn on supersonic!”
Supersonic passenger aircraft - what do we know about them? At least that they were created relatively long ago. But, for various reasons, they were not used for as long and not as often as they could have. And today, they exist only as design models.
Why is that? What is the peculiarity and “secret” of supersonic sound? Who created this technology? And also – what will be the future of supersonic aircraft in the world, and of course – in Russia? We will try to answer all these questions.
"Farewell flight"
So, fifteen years have passed since the last three functioning supersonic passenger aircraft made their last flights, after which they were written off. This was back in 2003. Then, on October 24, they all together “said goodbye to the sky.” The last time we flew at low altitude, over the capital of Great Britain.
Then we landed at London Heathrow Airport. These were Concorde type aircraft belonging to aviation company British Airways. And with such a “farewell flight” they ended a very short story passenger transportation, at speeds exceeding sound...
That's what you might have thought a few years ago. But now it is already possible to say with confidence. This is the finale of only the first stage of this story. And probably all its bright pages are yet to come.
Today - preparation, tomorrow - flight
Today, many companies and aircraft designers are thinking about the prospects of supersonic passenger aviation. Some are making plans to revive it. Others are already preparing for this with all their might.
After all, if it could exist and function effectively just a few decades ago, today, with technologies that have seriously stepped forward, it is quite possible not only to revive it, but also to solve a number of problems that forced leading airlines to abandon it.
And the prospects are too tempting. The possibility of flying, say, from London to Tokyo in five hours seems very interesting. Cross the distance from Sydney to Los Angeles in six hours? And get from Paris to New York in three and a half? With passenger aircraft, which are capable of flying at higher speeds than sound travels, this is not at all difficult.
But, of course, before its triumphant “return” to the airspace, scientists, engineers, designers, and many others still have a lot of work to do. It's not just about restoring what once was by offering a new model. Not at all.
The goal is to solve many problems associated with passenger supersonic aviation. Creation of aircraft that will not only demonstrate the capabilities and power of the countries that built them. But they will also turn out to be really effective. So much so that they occupy a worthy niche in aviation.
History of "supersonic" Part 1. What happened in the beginning...
Where did it all begin? In fact, from simple passenger aviation. And he has been like this for more than a century. Its design began in the 1910s in Europe. When craftsmen from the most developed countries of the world created the first aircraft, the main purpose of which was to transport passengers over various distances. That is, a flight with many people on board.
The first among them is the French Bleriot XXIV Limousine. It belonged to the aircraft manufacturing company Bleriot Aeronautique. However, it was used mainly for the amusement of those who paid for pleasure “walks”-flights on it. Two years after its creation, an analogue appears in Russia.
It was the S-21 Grand. It was designed on the basis of the Russian Knight, a heavy bomber created by Igor Sikorsky. And the construction of this passenger aircraft was carried out by workers of the Baltic Carriage Plant.
Well, after that, progress could no longer be stopped. Aviation developed rapidly. And the passenger one, in particular. At first there were flights between specific cities. Then the planes were able to cover distances between states. Finally, aircraft began to cross oceans and fly from one continent to another.
Developing technologies and an increasing number of innovations allowed aviation to travel very quickly. Much sooner than trains or ships. And for her there were practically no barriers. There was no need to change from one transport to another, not only, say, when traveling to some particularly distant “end of the world”.
Even when it is necessary to cross land and water at once. Nothing stopped the planes. And this is natural, because they fly over everything - continents, oceans, countries...
But time was passing quickly, the world was changing. Of course, the aviation industry also developed. Airplanes over the next few decades, right up to the 1950s, changed so much when compared with those that flew back in the early 1920s and 30s that they became something completely different, special.
And so, in the middle of the twentieth century, the development of the jet engine began at a very rapid pace, even in comparison with the previous twenty to thirty years.
A small informational digression. Or - a little physics
Advanced developments have allowed aircraft to “accelerate” to speeds greater than the speed at which sound travels. Of course, first of all, this was applied in military aviation. After all, we are talking about the twentieth century. Which, sad to say, was a century of conflicts, two world wars, the “cold” struggle between the USSR and the USA...
And almost every new technology created by the leading states of the world was primarily considered from the point of view of how it could be used in defense or attack.
So, airplanes could now fly at unprecedented speeds. Faster than sound. What is its specificity?
First of all, it is obvious that this is a speed that exceeds the speed at which sound travels. But, remembering the basic laws of physics, we can say that in different conditions, it may differ. And “exceeds” is a very loose concept.
And that’s why there is a special standard. Supersonic speed is one that exceeds sound speed up to five times, taking into account the fact that depending on temperature and other environmental factors, it can change.
For example - if we take normal atmospheric pressure at sea level, then in this case the speed of sound will be equal to an impressive figure - 1191 km/h. That is, 331 meters are covered in a second.
But what is especially important when designing supersonic aircraft is that as you gain altitude, the temperature decreases. This means the speed with which sound travels is quite significant.
So let's say, if you rise to a height of 20 thousand meters, then here it will already be 295 meters per second. But there is another important point.
At 25 thousand meters above sea level, the temperature begins to rise, since this is no longer the lower layer of the atmosphere. And so it goes on. Or rather, higher. Let's say at an altitude of 50,000 meters it will be even hotter. Consequently, the speed of sound there increases even more.
I wonder - for how long? Having risen 30 kilometers above sea level, you find yourself in a “zone” where sound travels at a speed of 318 meters per second. And at 50,000 meters, respectively – 330 m/s.
About the Mach number
By the way, it is interesting that to simplify the understanding of the features of flight and work in such conditions, the Mach number is used in aviation. general description such, can be reduced to the following conclusions. It expresses the speed of sound that occurs under given conditions, at a particular altitude, at a given temperature and air density.
For example, the flight speed, which is equal to two Mach numbers, at an altitude of ten kilometers above the ground, under normal conditions, will be equal to 2,157 km/h. And at sea level - 2,383 km/h.
History of "supersonic" Part 2. Overcoming barriers
By the way, for the first time, a pilot from the USA, Chuck Yeager, achieved flight speeds of more than Mach 1. This happened in 1947. Then he “accelerated” his plane, flying at an altitude of 12.2 thousand meters above the ground, to a speed of 1066 km/h. This is how the first supersonic flight took place on earth.
Already in the 1950s, work began on the design and preparation for mass production of passenger aircraft capable of flying at speeds faster than sound. They are led by scientists and aircraft designers from the most powerful countries in the world. And they manage to succeed.
That same Concorde, a model that will finally be abandoned in 2003, was created in 1969. This is a joint British-French development. The symbolically chosen name is “Concorde”, from French, translated as “concord”.
It was one of two existing types of supersonic passenger aircraft. Well, the creation of the second (or rather, chronologically, the first) is the merit of the aircraft designers of the USSR. The Soviet equivalent of the Concorde is called the Tu-144. It was designed in the 1960s and made its first flight on December 31, 1968, a year before the British-French model.
To this day, no other types of supersonic passenger aircraft have been implemented. Both the Concorde and the Tu-144 flew thanks to turbojet engines, which were specially rebuilt in order to operate at supersonic speed for a long time.
The Soviet analogue of the Concorde was operated for a significantly shorter period. Already in 1977 it was abandoned. The plane flew at an average speed of 2,300 kilometers per hour and could carry up to 140 passengers at a time. But at the same time, the price of a ticket for such a “supersonic” flight was two, two and a half, or even three times more than for an ordinary one.
Of course, such things were not in great demand among Soviet citizens. And maintaining the Tu-144 was not easy and expensive. That’s why they were abandoned so quickly in the USSR.
Concordes lasted longer, although tickets for the flights they flew were also expensive. And the demand was not great either. But still, despite this, they continued to be exploited, both in Great Britain and in France.
If you recalculate the cost of a Concorde ticket in the 1970s at today's exchange rate, it will be about two tens of thousands of dollars. For a one way ticket. One can understand why the demand for them was somewhat less than for flights using aircraft that do not reach supersonic speeds.
Concorde could carry from 92 to 120 passengers at a time. He flew at a speed of more than 2 thousand km/h and covered the distance from Paris to New York in three and a half hours.
Several decades passed like this. Until 2003.
One of the reasons for the refusal to operate this model was a plane crash that occurred in 2000. At that time, there were 113 people on board the crashed Concorde. They all died.
Later, an international crisis began in the field of passenger air transportation. Its cause is the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, in the United States.
Moreover, on top of that, the warranty period for Concorde service by Airbus is ending. All this together made the further operation of supersonic passenger aircraft extremely unprofitable. And in 2003, all Concordes were written off one by one, both in France and in the UK.
Hopes
After this, there were still hopes for a quick “return” of supersonic passenger aircraft. Aircraft designers talked about creating special engines that would save fuel, despite the flight speed. We talked about improving the quality and optimizing the main avionics systems on such aircraft.
But, in 2006 and 2008, new regulations of the International Civil Aviation Organization were issued. They defined the latter (they are valid, by the way, also on this moment) standards for permissible aircraft noise during flight.
And supersonic planes, as you know, did not have the right to fly over populated areas, that’s why. After all, they produced strong noise pops (also due to the physical characteristics of the flight) when they moved at maximum speeds.
This was the reason that the “planning” of the “revival” of supersonic passenger aviation was somewhat slowed down. However, in fact, after the introduction of this requirement, aircraft designers began to think about how to solve this problem. After all, it also took place before, it’s just that the “ban” focused attention on it – the “noise problem”.
What about today?
But ten years have passed since the last “ban”. And planning smoothly turned into design. Today, several companies and government organizations are engaged in the creation of passenger supersonic aircraft.
Which ones exactly? Russian: Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute (the same one that is named after Zhukovsky), Tupolev and Sukhoi companies. Russian aircraft designers have an invaluable advantage.
The experience of Soviet designers and creators of the Tu-144. However, it is better to talk about domestic developments in this area separately and in more detail, which is what we propose to do next.
But it’s not just the Russians who are creating a new generation of supersonic passenger aircraft. This is also a European concern - Airbus, and the French company Dassault. Among the companies in the United States of America that are working in this direction are Boeing and, of course, Lockheed Martin. In the country rising sun The main organization designing such an aircraft is the Aerospace Exploration Agency.
And this list is by no means complete. It is important to clarify that the overwhelming majority of professional aircraft designers working in this field are divided into two groups. Regardless of country of origin.
Some believe that it is in no way possible to create a “quiet” supersonic passenger aircraft at the current level of technological development of mankind.
Therefore, the only way out is to design a “simply fast” airliner. It, in turn, will go to supersonic speed in those places where this is allowed. And when flying, for example, over populated areas, return to subsonic.
Such “jumps,” according to this group of scientists and designers, will reduce flight time to the minimum possible, and not violate the requirements for noise effects.
Others, on the contrary, are full of determination. They believe that it is possible to fight the cause of the noise now. And they made a lot of effort to prove that it is quite possible to build a supersonic airliner that flies quietly in the very coming years.
And a little more fun physics
So, when flying at a speed of more than Mach 1.2, the airframe of the aircraft generates shock waves. They are strongest in the tail and nose areas, as well as some other parts of the aircraft, such as the edges of the air intakes.
What is a shock wave? This is an area where air density, pressure and temperature experience sudden changes. They occur when moving at high speeds, faster than sound speed.
To people who are standing on the ground, despite the distance, it seems that some kind of explosion is happening. Of course, we are talking about those who are in relative proximity - under the place where the plane flies. That is why flights were banned supersonic aviation over cities.
It is precisely such shock waves that representatives of the “second camp” of scientists and designers are fighting against, who believe in the possibility of leveling out this noise.
If we go into detail, the reason for this is literally a “collision” with air at a very high speed. At the wave front there is a sharp and strong increase in pressure. At the same time, immediately after it, there is a drop in pressure, and then a transition to a normal pressure indicator (the same as it was before the “collision”).
However, a classification of wave types has already been carried out and potentially optimal solutions have been found. All that remains is to complete the work in this direction and make the necessary adjustments to the aircraft designs, or create them from scratch, taking into account these amendments.
In particular, NASA specialists came to realize the need for structural changes in order to reform the characteristics of the flight as a whole.
Namely, changing the specificity of shock waves, as far as possible at the current technological level. What is achieved by restructuring the wave, through specific design changes. As a result, the standard wave is considered as an N-type, and the one that occurs during flight, taking into account the innovations proposed by experts, as an S-type.
And with the latter, the “explosive” effect of pressure changes is significantly reduced, and people located below, for example, in a city, if an airplane flies over them, even when they hear such an effect, it is only like a “distant slam of a car door.”
Shape is also important
In addition, for example, Japanese aviation designers, not so long ago, in mid-2015, created an unmanned glider model D-SEND 2. Its shape is designed in a special way, allowing to significantly reduce the intensity and number of shock waves that occur when the device flies at supersonic speed.
The effectiveness of the innovations proposed in this way by Japanese scientists was proven during tests of D-SEND 2. These were carried out in Sweden in July 2015. The course of the event was quite interesting.
The glider, which was not equipped with engines, was raised to a height of 30.5 kilometers. By using hot air balloon. Then he was thrown down. During the fall, he “accelerated” to a speed of Mach 1.39. The length of D-SEND 2 itself is 7.9 meters.
After the tests, Japanese aircraft designers were able to confidently declare that the intensity of the shock waves when their brainchild flies at a speed exceeding the speed of sound propagation is two times less than that of the Concorde.
What are the features of D-SEND 2? First of all, its nose is not axisymmetric. The keel is shifted towards it, and at the same time, the horizontal tail unit is installed as all-moving. It is also located at a negative angle to the longitudinal axis. And at the same time, the tail tips are located lower than the attachment point.
The wing, smoothly connected to the fuselage, is made with normal sweep, but stepped.
According to approximately the same scheme, now, as of November 2018, the supersonic passenger AS2 is being designed. Professionals from Lockheed Martin are working on it. The customer is NASA.
Also, the Russian SDS/SPS project is now at the stage of improving its form. It is planned that it will be created with an emphasis on reducing the intensity of shock waves.
Certification and... another certification
It is important to understand that some projects of passenger supersonic aircraft will be implemented in the early 2020s. At the same time, the rules established by the International Civil Aviation Organization in 2006 and 2008 will still be in force.
This means that if before that time there is no serious technological breakthrough in the field of “quiet supersonic”, then it is likely that aircraft will be created that will reach speeds above one Mach only in zones where this is permitted.
And after that, when the necessary technologies do appear, in such a scenario, many new tests will have to be carried out. In order for aircraft to obtain permission to fly over populated areas. But these are only speculations about the future; today it is very difficult to say anything for sure on this matter.
Question of price
Another problem mentioned earlier is the high cost. Of course, today, many engines have already been created that are much more economical than those that were used twenty or thirty years ago.
In particular, those that can provide aircraft movement at supersonic speed are now being designed, but at the same time do not “eat up” as much fuel as the Tu-144 or Concorde.
How? First of all, this is the use of ceramic composite materials, which reduce temperatures, and this is especially important in hot zones of power plants.
In addition, the introduction of another, third, air circuit - in addition to the external and internal ones. Leveling the rigid coupling of a turbine with a fan, inside an aircraft engine, etc.
But nevertheless, even thanks to all these innovations, it cannot be said that supersonic flight, in today’s realities, is economical. Therefore, in order for it to become accessible and attractive to the general public, work to improve engines is extremely important.
Perhaps the current solution would be a complete redesign of the design, experts say.
By the way, it will also not be possible to reduce the cost by increasing the number of passengers per flight. Because those aircraft that are being designed today (meaning, of course, supersonic aircraft) are designed to transport a small number of people - from eight to forty-five.
A new engine is a solution to the problem
Among the latest innovations in this area, it is worth noting the innovative jet turbofan power plant created this year, 2018, by GE Aviation. In October it was introduced under the name Affinity.
This engine is planned to be installed on the mentioned AS2 passenger model. There are no significant technological “new products” in this type of power plants. But at the same time, it combines the features of jet engines with high and low bypass ratios. Which makes the model very interesting for installation on a supersonic aircraft.
Among other things, the creators of the engine claim that during testing it will prove its ergonomics. The fuel consumption of the power plant will be approximately equal to that which can be recorded for standard airliner engines currently in operation.
That is, this is a claim that the power plant of a supersonic aircraft will consume approximately the same amount of fuel as a conventional airliner that is not capable of accelerating to speeds above Mach one.
How this will turn out is still difficult to explain. Since the design features of the engine are not currently being disclosed by its creators.
What could they be - Russian supersonic airliners?
Of course, today there are many specific projects for supersonic passenger aircraft. However, not all are close to implementation. Let's look at the most promising ones.
So, Russian aircraft manufacturers who inherited the experience of Soviet masters deserve special attention. As mentioned earlier, today, within the walls of TsAGI named after Zhukovsky, according to its employees, the creation of the concept of a new generation supersonic passenger aircraft has almost been completed.
The official description of the model, provided by the press service of the institute, mentions that it is a “light, administrative” aircraft, “with a low level of sonic boom.” The design is carried out by specialists, employees of this institution.
Also, in a message from the TsAGI press service it is mentioned that thanks to the special layout of the aircraft body and the special nozzle on which the noise suppression system is installed, this model will demonstrate the latest achievements in the technological development of the Russian aircraft industry.
By the way, it is important to mention that among the most promising TsAGI projects, in addition to what has been described, is a new configuration of passenger airliners called the “flying wing.” It implements several particularly relevant improvements. Specifically, it makes it possible to improve aerodynamics, reduce fuel consumption, etc. But for non-supersonic aircraft.
Among other things, this institute has repeatedly presented finished projects that have attracted the attention of aviation enthusiasts from all over the world. Let’s say, one of the latest, a model of a supersonic business jet, capable of traveling up to 7,000 kilometers without refueling, and reaching a speed of 1.8 thousand km/h. This was presented at the exhibition “Gidroaviasalon-2018”.
“...design is going on all over the world!”
In addition to the Russian ones mentioned above, the following models are also the most promising. American AS2 (capable of speeds up to Mach 1.5). Spanish S-512 (speed limit - Mach 1.6). And also, currently at the design stage in the USA, Boom, from Boom Technologies (well, it will be able to fly at a maximum speed of Mach 2.2).
There is also the X-59, which is being created for NASA by Lockheed Martin. But it will be a flying scientific laboratory, not a passenger plane. And no one has planned to put it into mass production yet.
The plans of Boom Technologies are interesting. Employees of this company say that they will try to reduce the cost of flights on the supersonic airliners created by the company as much as possible. For example, they can give an approximate price for a flight from London to New York. This is about 5000 US dollars.
For comparison, this is how much a ticket costs for a flight from the English capital to “New” York, on a regular or “subsonic” plane, in business class. That is, the price of a flight on an airliner capable of flying at a speed of more than Mach 1.2 will be approximately equal to the cost expensive ticket on a plane that could not make the same fast flight.
However, Boom Technologies bet on creating a “quiet” supersonic passenger airliner will not work out in the near future. Therefore, their Boom will fly at the maximum speed it can develop only over water. And when you are above land, switch to a smaller one.
Given that the Boom will be 52 meters long, it will be able to carry up to 45 passengers at a time. According to the plans of the company designing the aircraft, the first flight of this new product should occur in 2025.
What is currently known about another promising project – AS2? It will be able to carry significantly fewer people - only eight to twelve people per flight. In this case, the length of the liner will be 51.8 meters.
Over water, it is planned to be able to fly at a speed of Mach 1.4-1.6, and over land - 1.2. By the way, in the latter case, thanks to its special shape, the plane, in principle, will not generate shock waves. For the first time, this model should take to the air in the summer of 2023. In October of the same year, the aircraft will make its first flight across the Atlantic.
This event will be timed to coincide with a memorable date - the twentieth anniversary of the day the Concordes last flew over London.
Moreover, the Spanish S-512 will take to the skies for the first time no later than the end of 2021. And deliveries of this model to customers will begin in 2023. The maximum speed of this aircraft is Mach 1.6. It can accommodate 22 passengers on board. The maximum flight range is 11.5 thousand km.
The client is the head of everything!
As you can see, some companies are trying very hard to complete the design and begin creating aircraft as quickly as possible. For whom are they willing to rush in such a hurry? Let's try to explain.
So, during 2017, for example, the volume of air passenger traffic amounted to four billion people. Moreover, 650 million of them flew long distances, spending from 3.7 to thirteen hours on the way. Next - 72 million out of 650, moreover, they flew first or business class.
It is these 72,000,000 people, on average, that those companies that are engaged in the creation of supersonic passenger aircraft are counting on. The logic is simple - it is possible that many of them will not mind paying a little more for a ticket, provided that the flight will be approximately twice as fast.
But, even despite all the prospects, many experts reasonably believe that the active progress of supersonic aviation, created for the transport of passengers, may begin after 2025.
This opinion is confirmed by the fact that the mentioned “flying” laboratory X-59 will first take to the air only in 2021. Why?
Research and Outlook
The main purpose of its flights, which will take place over several years, will be to collect information. The fact is that this aircraft must fly over various populated areas at supersonic speed. Residents of these settlements have already expressed their consent to conduct tests.
And after the laboratory plane completes its next “experimental flight”, people living in those populated areas, over which it flew, must talk about the “impressions” that they received during the time when the airliner was above their heads. And especially clearly express how the noise was perceived. Did it affect their livelihoods, etc.
The data collected in this way will be transmitted to the Federal Aviation Administration in the United States. And after their detailed analysis by experts, perhaps the ban on supersonic airliner flights over populated land areas will be lifted. But in any case, this will not happen before 2025.
In the meantime, we can watch the creation of these innovative aircraft, which will soon mark the birth of a new era of supersonic passenger aviation with their flights!
Throughout history, man has been drawn to overcome all possible barriers. One of them has long been the speed of sound. At the moment, there are many supersonic aircraft, some of which are actively used by various states, while others, for one reason or another, no longer take to the skies.
In the course of development, which was carried out over many decades, not only supersonic fighters for military purposes were designed, but also civilian airliners, some of which carried passengers.
The development of aircraft capable of exceeding it began in the middle of the last century. This happened during the Second World War, when German scientists were hard at work trying to develop a supersonic aircraft that could turn the tide of the war.
However, the war ended, and many German scientists who worked on these developments were captured by the Americans. Largely thanks to them, the USA developed an aircraft with rocket engines - the Bell X-1, on which in 1947 Chuck Yeager was the first in the world to exceed the speed of sound.
A year later, the Soviet Union achieved a similar result by developing the LA-176, which first equaled the speed of sound at an altitude of 9,000 meters, and a month later, having received improved engines, exceeded it at an altitude of 7,000 meters.
Unfortunately, the project was closed due to the tragic death of O.V. Sokolovsky, one of the pilots of this plane. Further progress in the design of supersonic aircraft slowed down due to some physical obstacles: air liquefaction at too high a speed, changes in aerodynamics and streamlining. A serious obstacle was the overheating of aircraft breaking the sound barrier. This phenomenon is called "flutter".
Over the next few years, designers worked on streamlining, aerodynamics, body materials and other improvements.
Military aviation in the 1950s
At the beginning of this decade, the F-100 Super Saber and MiG-19 were developed by the USA and USSR, competing in all spheres. At first, the American F-100 overtook the Soviet MiG, reaching a speed of 1215 kilometers per hour in 1953, but a year later the Soviet MiG was able to outpace it, accelerating to 1450 kilometers per hour.
Despite the absence of open military clashes between the USA and the USSR, in the local conflicts of the Vietnam and Korean wars it was established that the Soviet MiG was in many ways superior to its American competitor.
The MiG-19 was lighter, took to the air faster, surpassed its competitor in dynamic characteristics, and its combat range was 200 kilometers longer than the F-100.
Such circumstances led to increased interest in Soviet developments on the part of the Americans, and after the end of the Korean War, officer No Geum Seok stole a MiG-19 from a Soviet airbase, providing it to the United States, for which he received a reward of $100,000.
Civil supersonic aviation
The technical developments obtained during the wars gave impetus to the rapid development of aviation in the 60s. The main problems caused by breaking the sound barrier were solved, and designers were able to begin designing the first supersonic civil aircraft.
The first supersonic airliner designed to carry passengers flew in 1961. This aircraft was a Douglas DC-8, piloted without passengers, with ballast placed on board to simulate their weight for testing in conditions as close to real as possible. At the time of descent from a height of 15877, the speed was 1262 km/h.
Also, the speed of sound was unplannedly exceeded by a Boeing 747 when the plane, en route from Taipei to Los Angeles, went into an uncontrolled dive as a result of malfunction and incompetence of the crew. Diving from an altitude of 125,000 meters to 2,900 meters, the plane exceeded the speed of sound, sustaining damage to the tail and causing serious injuries to two passengers. The incident occurred in 1985.
In total, two aircraft were built that were capable of truly exceeding the speed of sound in regular flights. They were the Soviet Tu-144 and the Anglo-French Aérospatiale-BAC Concorde. Apart from these aircraft, no other passenger aircraft could maintain supersonic cruising speed.
Tu-144 and Concorde
The Tu-144 is rightfully considered the first supersonic passenger aircraft in history, because it was built before the Concorde. These liners were distinguished not only by excellent specifications, but also elegant appearance– many consider them the most beautiful aircraft in the history of aviation.
Unfortunately, the Tu-144 became not only the first supersonic passenger aircraft to take to the skies, but also the first airliner of this type to crash. In 1973, 14 people died during a crash at Le Bourget, which served as the first impetus for the cessation of flights on this machine.
The second Tu-144 crash occurred in the Moscow region in 1978 - a fire broke out on the plane, causing the landing to be fatal for two crew members.
During the inspection, it was determined that the cause of the fire was a defect in the fuel system of the new engine, which was being tested at that time, but otherwise the aircraft showed excellent performance, as it was able to land when it caught fire. Despite this, commercial rail service on it was discontinued.
Concorde served European aviation much longer - flights on it lasted from 1976 to 2003. However, in 2000, this liner also crashed. While taking off from Charles De Gaulle, the plane caught fire and crashed to the ground, killing 113 people.
In the entire history of flights, Concorde never began to pay off, and after the disaster, the flow of passengers decreased so much that the project became even more unprofitable, and three years later flights on this supersonic aircraft ceased.
Technical characteristics of Tu-144
Many people wonder what the speed of a supersonic aircraft was? Let's look at the technical characteristics of the aircraft, which has long been the pride of domestic aviation:
- Crew – 4 people;
- Capacity – 150 people;
- The ratio of length and height is 67/12.5 meters;
- Maximum weight – 180 tons;
- Thrust with afterburner – 17500 kg/s;
- Cruising speed -2200 km/h;
- Maximum flight altitude – 18,000 meters;
- Flight range – 6500 kilometers.
On February 6, 1950, during another test, the Soviet jet fighter MiG-17 exceeded the speed of sound in horizontal flight, accelerating to almost 1070 km/h. This turned it into the first mass-produced supersonic aircraft. The developers Mikoyan and Gurevich were clearly proud of their brainchild.
For combat flights, the MiG-17 was considered transonic, since its cruising speed did not exceed 861 km/h. But this did not stop the fighter from becoming one of the most common in the world. At various times it was in service with Germany, China, Korea, Poland, Pakistan and dozens of other countries. This monster even took part in the fighting in the Vietnam War.
The MiG-17 is far from the only representative of the supersonic aircraft genre. We will tell you about a dozen more airliners that also outpaced the sound wave and became famous throughout the world.
Bell X-1
The US Air Force specially equipped the Bell X-1 with a rocket engine because they wanted to use it to study the problems of supersonic flight. On October 14, 1947, the device accelerated to 1541 km/h (Mach number 1.26), overcame a given barrier and turned into a star in the sky. Today, the record-breaking model rests in the Smithsonian Museum in the States.
Source: NASA
North American X-15
The North American X-15 is also equipped with rocket engines. But, unlike its American counterpart Bell X-1, this aircraft reached a speed of 6167 km/h (Mach number 5.58), becoming the first and for 40 years the only manned hypersonic aircraft in human history (since 1959). who performed suborbital manned space flights. With its help, they even studied the reaction of the atmosphere to the entry of winged bodies into it. A total of three units of X-15 type rocket planes were produced.
Source: NASA
Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird
It would be a sin not to use supersonic aircraft for military purposes. Therefore, the US Air Force designed the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, a strategic reconnaissance aircraft with a maximum speed of 3,700 km/h (Mach number 3.5). The main advantages are fast acceleration and high maneuverability, which allowed it to evade missiles. The SR-71 was also the first aircraft to be equipped with radar signature reduction technologies.
Only 32 units were built, 12 of which crashed. In 1998 it was withdrawn from service.
Source: af.mil
MiG-25
We cannot help but recall the domestic MiG-25 - a 3rd generation supersonic high-altitude fighter-interceptor with a maximum speed of 3000 km/h (Mach number 2.83). The plane was so cool that even the Japanese coveted it. Therefore, on September 6, 1976, Soviet pilot Viktor Belenko had to hijack a MiG-25. After this, for many years in many parts of the Union, aircraft began to be incompletely refueled. The goal is to prevent them from flying to the nearest foreign airport.
Source: Alexey Beltyukov
MiG-31
Soviet scientists did not stop working for the aerial benefit of the fatherland. Therefore, in 1968, the design of the MiG-31 began. And on September 16, 1975, he was in the sky for the first time. This two-seat supersonic all-weather long-range fighter-interceptor accelerated to a speed of 2500 km/h (Mach number 2.35) and became the first Soviet fourth-generation combat aircraft.
The MiG-31 is designed to intercept and destroy air targets at extremely low, low, medium and high altitudes, day and night, in simple and adverse weather conditions, with active and passive radar interference, as well as false thermal targets. Four MiG-31s can control airspace up to 900 kilometers long. This is not an airplane, but the pride of the Union, which is still in service with Russia and Kazakhstan.
Source: Vitaly Kuzmin
Lockheed/Boeing F-22 Raptor
The most expensive supersonic aircraft were built by the Americans. They modeled a fifth-generation multirole fighter, which became the most expensive among their colleagues. The Lockheed/Boeing F-22 Raptor is currently the only fifth-generation fighter in service and the first production fighter with a supersonic cruising speed of 1,890 km/h (Mach 1.78). Top speed 2570 km/h (Mach 2.42). No one has ever surpassed him in the air.
Source: af.mil
Su-100/T-4
The Su-100/T-4 (“weaving”) was developed as an aircraft carrier fighter. But the engineers of the Sukhoi Design Bureau managed not only to achieve their goal, but to simulate a cool attack and reconnaissance bomber-missile carrier, which they then wanted to use even as passenger plane and an accelerator for the Spiral aerospace system. The maximum speed of the T-4 is 3200 km/h (Mach 3).
Aircraft designers were faced with the task of further increasing their speed. Higher speed expanded the combat capabilities of both fighters and bombers.
The supersonic era began with the flight of Chuck Yeager, an American test pilot, on October 14, 1947, on an experimental Bell X-1 aircraft with an XLR-11 rocket engine that reached supersonic speed in controlled flight.
Development
The 60s-70s of the 20th century were marked by the rapid development of supersonic aviation. The main problems of aircraft stability and controllability and their aerodynamic efficiency were solved. The high flight speed also made it possible to increase the ceiling to over 20 km, which was important for reconnaissance aircraft and bombers. At that time, before the advent of anti-aircraft missile systems capable of hitting targets at high altitudes, the main principle of using bombers was to fly to the target at the highest possible altitude and speed. During these years, supersonic aircraft for a wide variety of purposes were built and put into production - fighters, bombers, interceptors, fighter-bombers, reconnaissance aircraft (the first supersonic all-weather interceptor - Convair F-102 Delta Dagger; the first supersonic long-range bomber - Convair B-58 Hustler) .
Nowadays, new aircraft are appearing, including those made using Stealth technology to reduce visibility.
Comparative diagrams of Tu-144 and Concorde
Passenger supersonic aircraft
In the history of aviation, there have only been two passenger supersonic aircraft operating on regular flights. The Soviet Tu-144 aircraft made its first flight on December 31, 1968, and was in operation from 1978 to 1978. Two months later, on March 2, 1969, the Anglo-French Concorde (fr. Concorde- “consent”) made transatlantic flights from 2003 to 2003. Their operation made it possible not only to significantly reduce flight time on long-distance flights, but also to use uncongested airspace at high altitudes (≈18 km), while the main airspace used by airliners (altitudes 9-12 km) was already in those years significantly loaded. Also, supersonic aircraft flew along straight routes (outside air routes).
Theoretical issues
Flight at supersonic speed, in contrast to subsonic speed, proceeds according to different laws, since when an object reaches the speed of sound, the aerodynamic flow pattern changes qualitatively, due to which aerodynamic drag increases sharply, kinetic heating of the structure increases, the aerodynamic focus shifts, which leads to loss of stability and aircraft controllability. In addition, a hitherto unknown phenomenon called “wave resistance” appeared.
Therefore, achieving the speed of sound and efficient flight were impossible by simply increasing engine power; new design solutions were required. The consequence was a change in the appearance of the aircraft - characteristic straight lines and sharp corners appeared, in contrast to the “smooth” shape of subsonic aircraft.
It should be noted that the task of creating an effective supersonic aircraft cannot yet be considered solved. The creators have to make a compromise between the requirement to increase speed and maintain acceptable takeoff and landing characteristics. Thus, the conquest of new frontiers in speed and altitude by aviation is associated not only with the use of a more advanced or fundamentally new propulsion system and a new aircraft layout, but also with changes in their geometry in flight. Such changes, while improving the aircraft's performance at high speeds, should not worsen their performance at low speeds, and vice versa. Recently, creators have been refusing to reduce the wing area and the relative thickness of their profiles, as well as increasing the wing sweep angle of aircraft with variable geometry, returning to low-sweep wings and a large relative thickness, if satisfactory maximum speed and ceiling values have already been achieved. In this case, it is considered important that a supersonic aircraft has good performance at low speeds and reduced drag at high speeds, especially at low altitudes.
Notes
see also
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