The structure of the earth. (10-12 min)

1. -Check the versions of the formation of the Earth.

Everyone knows that the Earth is a sphere. The secret of the formation of mountains is to be found within the Earth.

The internal structure of the Earth resembles a chicken egg (show).

The core is the yolk.

The mantle is protein.

The bark is a shell.

The teacher offers to create a model of the Earth from plasticine, comments in the process, naming the main layers.

Core - is a red-hot molten metals at t=5000 °C.

The mantle (in fairy tales the cape of kings) is a molten mass, constantly flowing; heated from the core, rises up, then falls down. As if stone porridge is being cooked.

The earth's crust is a thin upper solid layer (comparable in thickness to a postage stamp pasted on a ball). The real thickness is 100 km. (Cut the model of the Earth, repeat the layers).

Who has the better picture?

2. Formation of mountains (2-3 min).

The crust consists of individual plates that float like ice floes during an ice drift, only very slowly, at a rate of 1-2 cm per year. Let's depict the movement of plates, for example, Euro-Asian and Indo-European.

The mobile game "Movement of Plates", during which the reasons for the formation of mountains are revealed.

3. Earthquake, volcanic eruption (2-3 min).

Mountains are formed as a result of plate movement. But all movements are accompanied by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other cataclysms. The spectacle is stunning in its beauty, but incredibly terrible in its destructive powers.

How fast is the lava velocity of the volcano? Mobile game "Escape from the volcano" (on the principle of running a race).

It is unlikely that you will be able to escape from the volcano, because the average speed of lava outflow is 50 km/h, and during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Pompeii, lava flowed at a speed of 150 km/h.

The biggest cataclysms in the history of mankind.

- What large and destructive earthquakes of our time do you know about?

On March 11, 2011, a strong earthquake hit Japan. The resulting tsunami wave several tens of meters high partially destroyed the Fukushima-1 nuclear power plant and damaged the cooling system. The accident caused radioactive contamination of the area and the discharge of radioactive water into Pacific Ocean. The earthquake claimed the lives of almost 16 thousand people.

And in 79 AD. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius wiped out several cities, including the flourishing city of Pompeii.

Working with the textbook illustration (p. 119)

What is happening in the picture?

What mood does she evoke?

What surprised you?

And only in the 19th century the city was accidentally discovered and after the excavations it appears almost unscathed before our contemporaries.

4. Mountains: old and young (5-7 min.)

Mountains are a symbol of inviolability, eternity. But the mountains are also aging, collapsing.

Which picture shows old mountains, and which shows young ones?

By what signs did you guess?

Why do mountains age and collapse? Find the answer to this question in the textbook on p. 117.

How do water, wind, plants destroy mountains?

Therefore, the younger mountains are steep, with sharp peaks, the older ones are smoothed, with gentle slopes.

Did we achieve some goal of the lesson? What goal is yet to be achieved?

Class: 2

Targets and goals.

Educational:

• to acquaint with the characteristic features and nature of mountains, explain the reasons for their occurrence;
• learn to find mountains on maps.

Developing:

• to form skills to work with a map, reference literature;
• develop skills and abilities of independent and group work.

Educators:

• contribute to the enrichment and development of students' subjective ideas about nature.

Basic knowledge, skills and abilities.

• globe, map, conventions to them;
• parts of the world, continents;
• characteristics mountains, plains;
• main natural areas;
• about the change of natural zones on the surface of the Earth.

• use laws and rules to make sense of your experience;
• use the book to answer questions;
• learn to read the map and use it;
• own elementary methods of reading a map (determining land and water, height, landforms, symbols);
• show the continents on the map;
• identify plains, mountains on the map;
• show the main geographic features on a physical map in different parts of the world.

Equipment.

For students:

• textbook-notebook “Our planet Earth”, part 1;
• individual worksheets;
• geography textbook “Our world. The mountains".

For the teacher:

• textbook - notebook "Our planet Earth", part 1;
• geography textbook “Our world. The mountains";
• physical map of the hemispheres;
• tables “Plains”, “Mountains”;
• reproductions of paintings by M.Yu. Lermontov to his works about mountains.

During the classes

The activities of the teacher. UUD ( in the table)

I. Organizing moment

Hello guys.

II. Updating of basic knowledge. Motivation

What did we study in the last lesson? (The nature of the Earth, its surface)

What shape of the Earth's surface are you already familiar with? (Plains)

What can you tell about the plains? (When answering, use the “Plains” table)

Do you think there are other surface shapes?

Justify your opinion.

“I saw piles of dark rocks,
When the stream separated them...
I have seen mountain ranges,
Weird as dreams...
In the distance I saw through the mist
In the snows burning like a diamond
The gray-haired unshakable Caucasus”.

M.Yu. Lermontov

(Demonstration of reproductions of sketches by M.Yu. Lermontov)

What did the great Russian poet M.Yu. so enthusiastically write about? Lermontov? (About the mountains)

And he also made illustrations for his works.

(Demonstration of reproductions)

What struck him, led him into such admiration?

What will we talk about in class today?

What is the name of our lesson?

I propose to take a line from the song by V. Vysotsky “Only mountains can be better than mountains ...”

(Writing the topic on the board)

III. Formulation of the problem. goal setting

What would you like to learn in class today?

What questions would you like answered on this topic?

IV. Discovery of new knowledge

What are called mountains?

What shape are mountains?

How are mountains formed?

What do you think about it?

(Working with illustrations, explanatory dictionary)

Were the proposals confirmed?

Prove using the text of the textbook.

Conclusion.

Mountains - an elevation on the earth's surface, most often associated with the activity of the underground forces of the Earth.

What forces are involved in creating the appearance of the planet?

What is weathering?

Weathering is the destructive activity of water, wind and other natural forces.

Summarize the knowledge gained.

Let's make a diagram:

Consider carefully the table "Mountains".

What conclusion can be drawn?

In what form can it be written?

Why are they called that?

How do mountains “age”? Try to explain.

• pp. 12-13 - volcanoes;
• pp. 14-15 - collision of plates;
• pp. 18-19 - erosion.

Using the knowledge gained, find young and old mountains in the drawings. Justify your choice.

(Compare the mountains of the Caucasus and the Urals)

Physical education minute

First I will be a plain
I'll get on my knees.
Then I turn into a mountain
I'll reach for the sky right now.

(They squat down, hug their knees with their hands. Stand on their toes, stretch their arms up)

V. Inclusion in the knowledge system

Workshop on independent application and use of acquired knowledge.

Read carefully the task on the sheets:

Using the "Physical map of the hemispheres" connect the names of the rivers with the name of the mountains in which their sources are located .

What knowledge do you think is needed to complete this task? Do we have all the knowledge necessary to complete the task?

Show each geographic pair on a map.

(Working with a map at the blackboard. Checking according to the model)

m. South America-> Andes -> r. Amazon

m. Sev. America -> Cordillera -> r. Missouri

Europe -> Alps -> r. Danube
m. Eurasia

Asia -> Himalayas -> r. Ganges

Physical education: exercise for the eyes "Butterfly", "Owl".

Inclusion in the system of knowledge and repetition.

Think about what will be the nature of the mountains?

Explain how you understand what altitudinal zonality is.

Let's check ourselves. Find the definition in the explanatory dictionary.

High-altitude belts are ecosystems that replace each other when climbing mountains.

Why, the higher we climb the mountains, does nature change?

Work with the textbook on geography “Our world. Mountains”, Volgograd cooperative “Book”. 1995

Page 22 - the weather and climate in the mountains depend on the height,

Page 24 - 25 - flora (on the example of the vegetation of the Himalayas),

Page 26 - 27 - fauna (on the example of the animal world of the Himalayas).

VI. Homework

Optionally.

Plants and animals of mountains. (Drawings, appliqué, etc.)

- “People and mountains”

Think about whether people can live in the mountains. What will they be able to do?

Do mountains need protection? Prove your guesses.

If so, what can you offer to protect them?

VII. Summary of the lesson. Reflection

What goals did you set for yourself at the beginning of the lesson?

How was knowledge obtained?

What have you learned?

(Mountains are characterized by a number of properties: an elevated surface, a pointed shape, etc. Mountains arise as a result of the action of underground forces and are destroyed by weathering. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes can occur in the mountains)

What was interesting about the lesson?

And what was the main thing in the lesson?

What succeeded? What else needs to be worked on?

What else would you like to know?

The nature of the Earth is majestic and unique. Mysterious depths of the seas and oceans. The submissive muttering of lowland rivers and the indignant roar of mountainous ones. Endless plains beckoning into the distance. Mighty, awe-inspiring mountains... All this is powerful, but at the same time fragile, and therefore requires care and respect.

Thank you for your work at the lesson, for your activity.

Goodbye! Wish you luck!

Literature

1. Educational system “School 2100”. common sense pedagogy. Collection of materials / Under the scientific editorship of A.A. Leontiev. - M.: "Ballas", Publishing House of RAO, 2003.
2. Educational system “School 2100”. Our planet Earth. Grade 2 Methodical recommendations for the teacher on the course of the surrounding world "World and man". A.A. Vakhrushev, O.V. Bursky, A.S. Rautian. – M.: Balass, 2002.
3. Educational system “School 2100”. The world. Textbook-notebook for the 2nd grade "Our planet Earth". In 4 parts. Part 2. / A group of authors led by A.A. Vakhrushev. - M .: "Balass", 2004
4. Educational system “School 2100”. The world. Textbook-notebook for the 2nd grade "Our planet Earth". In 4 parts. Part 4. / A group of authors led by A.A. Vakhrushev. - M .: "Balass", 2004
5. The mountains. Geography textbook for schoolchildren.: Translation from English, revised and supplemented. / Edited by T. Ronina. - Volgograd: cooperative "Book", "International Center for Education Weiland - Volgograd", 1995

First, let's see what is currently known about the structure and development of mountain systems. Mountains have some peculiarities. The first of these is the staging of development. There are usually three stages.

First - period of subsidence and accumulation of thick sedimentary strata.

Second - stage of formation and formation of mountains.

And finally, the third - the stage of aging and destruction of mountains. Such a sequence of the process of mountain building was noticed even during the formation of the doctrine of geosynclines (end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century).

However, in our opinion, in the doctrine of the development of mountains, a very significant, although outwardly hardly noticeable, stage was omitted, which can be conditionally called prageosynclinal, i.e., preceding the appearance of the geosynclinal basin. It was revealed only now, at the stage of widespread use of deep drilling and seismic methods, which made it possible to better understand the structure of mountains and foothills. The presence of this stage is confirmed, for example, by analysis of the geological structure of the northwestern part of the Appalachians and the Swiss Jura. So, on the northwestern margin of the Appalachians, the folds are located directly on the Precambrian basement (left side of the figure). Moreover, the lower layers lie almost horizontally, and if they did not gradually sink to the southeast into the depths of the Appalachian Mountains, then it would be impossible to assume their connection with the Appalachian fold zone. But such a connection exists, and, obviously, weakly disturbed strata underlying the sedimentary rocks characterize some preliminary phase of the formation of the geosyncline. This stage differs from the next one, the actual geosynclinal one, by a calm, gradual subsidence. Thus, the full cycle of mountain development does not consist of three, but of four stages.

The second feature of mountains is the complexity and diversity of structures within a single mountain system.

Structural variegation is often so great that it seems that neighboring areas are not part of a single mountain structure.

Finally, the third feature of mountains is that within their limits the earth's crust is thickened. With an average thickness on the continents of 30-35 km in young folded systems - the Pamirs, the Caucasus, the Alps, the Cordillera, the Hades - it reaches 50-62 km. And since the mountains do not rise above 7-8 km above sea level, the crust within them is, as it were, pressed into the peridotite shell, forming “mountain roots”.

According to the geophysicist I.P. Kosmiiskaya, the thickening of the crust in young mountain ranges occurs due to a more powerful granite layer.

Indeed, in terms of the speed of propagation of seismic waves, this part is quite close to granites. But is it granite?

As already mentioned, the thickness of the sedimentary strata crumpled into folds in mountainous areas reaches twenty or more kilometers, in any case, it is almost always at least fifteen. This is probably just the value that corresponds to the thickness of the granitic part of the crust missing here, and sedimentary rocks in mountainous areas appear to lie directly on the basalts. This is confirmed by geophysical data on typical geosynclinal depressions - the Black Sea and the Caspian.

Do all mountains have roots? No, this belongs only to young fold systems, therefore, at the stage of subsidence and in the era of mountain aging, there are no roots. Consequently, only when the mountains rise upwards, and their bases sink down into the peridotite zone, do the roots of the mountains appear.

These are the facts. They demand an explanation.

Let's look at the aforementioned stages in the development of mountain systems, how these facts are linked with the idea of ​​the expansion of the Earth. The first stage is prageosynclinal. It is characterized by the accumulation, sometimes very significant, of sedimentary strata lying horizontally, and the complete absence of volcanism. Consequently, there is still no direct connection with the deep layers of the Earth. The accumulation of sediments is obviously caused by extension (but not rupture) and deflection of the granite layer of the earth's crust.

The second stage, actually geosynclinal, is the time of prolonged subsidence and accumulation of thick sedimentary strata, accompanied by intense outpourings of lavas and active volcanic activity. The stage under consideration is due to further stretching and rupture of the granite part of the crust, which leads to direct contact of sedimentary rocks with deep crystalline ones. From the basalt strata, now overlain by crushed rocks of the granite layer and relatively loose sedimentary rocks, magma is easily released, literally stuffed with expanded (due to pressure reduction) gases.

The third stage - the stage of formation of folds and mountains - can also be explained by accepting the expansion hypothesis, although it would seem that this is where its Achilles' heel is located. After all, it is usually believed that the folds are the result of lateral pressure or pressure coming from below. And suddenly - the denial of both.

Why, in our opinion, is it impossible to consider lateral pressure as the main factor leading to the formation of folds? Because it cannot be transmitted over a distance equal to many hundreds of kilometers, and will be extinguished already a few kilometers from the pressing object.

In addition, the neighborhood of diverse sites found in some mountainous regions can serve as confirmation that there were probably no single mountain-building movements that formed the entire mountain system at once, and each site arose on its own, individually.

Then, perhaps, the mechanism of "vertically moving pistons" worked here? It is unlikely, since simultaneously with the rise of the tops of the mountains to transcendental heights, their roots penetrated downward, i.e., the movement simultaneously went in opposite directions.

So, we can assume that neither horizontal compression nor vertical uplift could lead to the formation of mountains. Therefore, one thing remains: it is likely that mountains are formed as a result of deconsolidation of crystalline and sedimentary rocks that make up the upper part of the earth's crust.

Is it not surprising that now we have to return to the conclusion made back in 1899 by Datton, who pointed out that one of the causes of mountain building is "... the gradual expansion or decrease in the density of underground magmas."

To the idea of ​​"swelling" as possible cause the formation of mountains, I. V. Kirillov also came. His idea formed the basis of our development.

Under what conditions and how, from our point of view, does the “swelling process” take place? It should go especially vigorously at the base of the mountains, since magmas saturated with expanded gases “act” there. But "swelling" alone is not enough for mountains to appear, since the rocks "swell" first under conditions of stretching of the crust and, therefore, cannot rise up, all the while spreading to the sides. And only at the moments of suspension of tension, when the rocks that have increased in volume no longer have an exit to the sides, they rise up with force and are pressed down into the plastic basalt mass, forming mountains and their roots.

Since the history of the Earth is dominated by extension, and its temporary suspensions are not very long, the epochs of mountain building turn out to be much shorter than the periods of formation of geosynclinal troughs preceding them. No wonder the epochs of mountain building are called revolutionary stages in the development of the Earth, during which its face is dramatically transformed.

Finally, the last stage is the stage of mountain aging. This process is also explained in terms of the expansion hypothesis.

Aging is a slowdown of some active processes, due to which destruction begins to prevail over creation. This is what happens in this case as well. We have seen that the intrusion of magmas saturated with expanded gases is the result of an imbalance, and as soon as it is restored - and this happens at a time when magmas are degassed and sedimentary rocks are granitized - the very process of growth of mountains and their roots dies out and begins destruction occurring under the action of water, weathering and other factors.

The tops of the mountains disappear, and their roots are pulled up. After several stages of folding, the geosynclinal zones turn into young platform areas.

If you find an error, please highlight a piece of text and click Ctrl+Enter.

Mount Kailash (Kangrinboche) is covered with many myths, and all due to the fact that no human has set foot on it yet, the peak remains unconquered even in the 21st century. Mount Kailash has great religious significance in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, the Tibetan Bon tradition.
So, for a long time, an article written by the author, “Marisa263”, hung on the site, in the comments you can see the indignation of visitors pointing to many inaccuracies and frankly fictional facts. I decided that just rewriting the article is not very interesting, it is better to go through each point and refute or confirm them. Under each item, I added the facts I found and my thoughts on the subject.

1 Mount Kailash and its height

Statement #1. Mount Kailash is one of mysterious places in the world, the height of which is 6666 meters.
Wikipedia gives a different figure of 6638 meters with a link to us Peakbagger.com. It is also said that scientists disagree between 6638 and 6890 meters, depending on the method of measurement.

2 On the opposite side of the Earth - the skeleton of Easter


Statement #2. On the opposite side of the Earth from Mount Kailash is the skeleton of Easter, which is famous for its stone idols.
Probably everyone remembers from the geometry course that two points on a sphere can be connected by a segment, this segment is called a chord. So the chord connecting Easter Island and Mount Kailash really passes close to the center of the Earth,
it is difficult to say exactly whether it is through the center, but it can be argued that the skeleton of Easter is on the opposite side of the Earth.

3 People age faster near Kailash


Statement #3. that Near Kailash people age faster (12 hours in about 2 weeks), this is evidenced by the growth of hair and nails.
In fact, it is a fact known to science that the growth of nails and hair slows down in the cold, which probably explains the observation.

4 Mount Kailash remains unconquered


Statement #4. She has not yet allowed a single climber to reach her summit, those who tried were “thrown off” by the mountain. The religious texts of Buddhism and Hinduism say the following about Kailash: "None of the mortals dare to climb the mountain where the gods live, the one who sees the faces of the gods must die."
In fact, in 2000, the Spanish expedition received permission to conquer Kailash from the Chinese authorities. The team set base camp at the foot, but they did not manage to set foot on the mountain. Thousands of pilgrims blocked the path of the expedition. The Dalai Lama, the UN, a number of major international organizations, millions of believers around the world protested the conquest of Kailash, and the Spaniards had to retreat

5 You can't swim in Rakshas Tal Lake


Statement #5. Near the mountain there are two lakes: Manasarovar (living and pure water) and Rakshas Tal (in Tibetan, Lhanag Tso, “Demon Lake”). In Lake Manasarovar (fresh), which is located at an altitude of 4560 m above sea level, you can swim, drink water, it is considered sacred, and also at any time of the year, in any weather, it is calm.
Rakshas (), 4515m above sea level. It is considered a lake of dead water, which you can not only drink, but also touch it, as well as at any time of the year and in any weather there is a storm on this lake.
Perhaps, according to the beliefs of the local population, this is true, but the network has photos of tourists not only touching, but also swimming in the Rakshas Tal lake.

6 Kailash and the image of the swastika




Statement #6. Mount Kailash is broken by two huge ridges - cracks, which, especially in the evening, with the help of the shadow from the ledges of the rock, form a huge image of the swastika.
I added a photo in the evening hours, I added a photo where there is less snow, which can be said, the slope is dotted with cracks, the cross is visible, well, there is no swastika, but if you wish, you can probably find a swastika in abundance of cracks.

7 Kailash is a pyramid


Statement #7. The fact that Mount Kailash is a pyramid (which, like the rest of the pyramids, is clearly oriented to the cardinal points) is no longer an innovation. All scientists who have visited near Kailash do not doubt its pyramidality.
I am attaching a screenshot from google maps, with a compass needle and applied axes, everything is obvious here. Like the Pyramid of the Sun in Bosnia, the mountain is a natural geological formation known as a flatiron.

8 Mount Kailash is an artificial formation

Statement #8. Many scientists consider this mountain to be an artificial formation, with some voids inside (at the level of the middle and at the foot), which was built by someone, for something and with a specific purpose.
It is difficult to prove as difficult as it is to refute without special research, so I will express my opinion - this is a mountain, a natural formation.

9 From Mount Kailash to the Stonehenge monument (England) - 6666 km.


Statement #9. From Mount Kailash to the Stonehenge monument (England) - 6666 km. To the North Pole - 6666 km. From the mountain to the South Pole twice 6666 km.
The photo speaks for itself.

10 Sarcophagus of Nandu


Statement #10. Sarcophagus of Nandu, a structure that adjoins Mount Kailash. After some research, scientists have proven that this sarcophagus also has cavities inside. Where, according to the ancient legends of China, all the teachers of the world are in a state of samadhi (deep meditation): Jesus, Buddha, Krishna, Zarathustra, Confucius and other sages that have ever been sent to the world. And they stay there in order to serve as a continuation of the gene pool of mankind in the event of the death of civilization.
Research data are not given, which means it is impossible to verify them, as well as item 8.

The surface of the planet is diverse in the forms of its relief. Some areas are dominated by plains, while others are hilly. And on the third mountains rise. A mountain is a hill that rises above the surrounding area by 500 meters or more. The height of the largest mountains on the planet exceeds 8 thousand meters, and Everest is recognized as the highest at 8848 meters. A single mountain in the surrounding plain is the exception rather than the rule. In the overwhelming majority of cases, mountains form chains, and these chains are formed in by no means random places.

Mountains are of tectonic origin, they are formed due to the movements of the earth's crust. When one lithospheric plate comes under another, the first rises, its edge goes up, forming another mountain system.

Origin of mountains and their evolution

So, mountains are formed in seismically active areas, at the junctions of lithospheric plates. Where the plates diverge, other formations, rift plains, appear. In the same areas where the plates crawl one on top of the other, mountain folds are formed. The formation of mountains is not an instantaneous process. Since the plates move at a speed of no more than a few centimeters per year, mountains grow just as slowly. It takes millions of years to form a ridge.

Interesting fact: in mountainous areas, seismic phenomena are observed - earthquakes, volcanic activity. This is a completely natural fact.

With active movements of the earth's crust, mountains grow to enormous heights. An example would be Tibet, Himalayan mountains- they arose during the movement of the Hindustan peninsula towards the Eurasian plate. These mountain ranges remain the highest on the planet to this day, mountain building processes do not stop here, as the movement continues. But there are old mountains, for example, the Urals. They don't grow anymore. These mountains are gradually decreasing in size, becoming more and more gentle, low due to erosion. Wind, exposure to water, temperature changes, and other factors cause their gradual destruction, which also occurs gradually.

The seismic activity necessary for the formation of mountains does not occur everywhere. So, there are practically no mountains on the African continent, and seismic activity is found only in its northern part. It is believed that this is the oldest continent. But there are mountains at the bottom of the oceans. The plates of the earth's crust are continental and oceanic. Oceanic ones have a much smaller thickness, but the same processes occur during their movement. Under the cover of the oceans rises the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, many other mountain formations, having a height of up to several thousand meters. They are formed exactly according to the same algorithm.

Mountain life periods

At the stage of its formation, the mountains only grow. Growth can occur at different rates, it all depends on the characteristics of the course of tectonic processes. If the mountain is a volcano, growth can be rapid - due to ejected materials. Simultaneously with the earthly forces that cause the growth of these formations, the opposite ones work - first of all, erosion, which causes destruction. At one fine moment, all modern mountains will become sand, washed out by water, blown by the wind, but this will not happen very soon. By that time, new mountains will appear on the planet.

As long as the rate of growth of the mountain exceeds the rate of its destruction, it increases. Many modern mountains are growing, it's just barely noticeable. But as soon as the forces of the Earth cease to stimulate growth, the mountain begins to gradually decrease in size under the influence of erosion. There are many collapsing, dying mountains on the planet, these are not only the Urals, but also the Old Appalachians in America, and many others.

Why are mountains layered?

It's not hard to see the side of the mountain. Many of them have signs of landslides, which reveal a kind of cut, which always turns out to be layered. It can be used to judge what was in this area even before the mountain began to form. So, in the Alps, at an altitude of about 3 kilometers, shells are found, materials that accumulate only on seabed. After examination by scientists, it turned out that: once there was sea ​​bottom, The Mediterranean Sea splashed in these territories in the past, and then they began to rise in folds due to the advance of the African continent. After all, the plate on which it lies is moving towards the Eurasian one. Layers of rocks testify to what was in these territories in the past, perhaps even when they were plains. Therefore, they are actively studied, and bones of ancient animals and other remarkable fossil objects are often found in them.