>>Russian discoverers and travelers

§ 16. Russian discoverers and travelers

The 19th century was the time of the largest geographical discoveries made by Russian explorers. Continuing the traditions of their predecessors - explorers and travelers of the 17th-18th centuries, they enriched Russians' ideas about the world around them and contributed to the development of new territories that became part of the empire. Russia carried out for the first time old dream: her ships entered the World Ocean.

I. F. Krusenstern and Yu. F. Lisyansky.

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Russian navigators, along with European ones, are the most famous pioneers who discovered new continents, sections of mountain ranges and vast water areas.

They became the pioneers of significant geographical objects, took the first steps in the development of hard-to-reach territories, and traveled around the world. So who are they, the conquerors of the seas, and what exactly did the world learn about thanks to them?

Afanasy Nikitin - the very first Russian traveler

Afanasy Nikitin is rightfully considered the first Russian traveler who managed to visit India and Persia (1468-1474, according to other sources 1466-1472). On the way back he visited Somalia, Turkey, and Muscat. Based on his travels, Afanasy compiled the notes “Walking across the Three Seas,” which became popular and unique historical and literary aids. These notes became the first book in Russian history not written in the format of a story about a pilgrimage, but describing the political, economic and cultural features of the territories.

Afanasy Nikitin

He was able to prove that even being a member of a poor peasant family you can become famous researcher and traveler. Streets, embankments in several Russian cities, a motor ship, passenger train and aircraft

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Semyon Dezhnev, who founded the Anadyr fortress

Cossack ataman Semyon Dezhnev was an Arctic navigator who became the discoverer of a number of geographical objects. Wherever Semyon Ivanovich served, everywhere he sought to study new and previously unknown things. He was even able to cross the East Siberian Sea on a homemade kocha, going from Indigirka to Alazeya.

In 1643, as part of a detachment of explorers, Semyon Ivanovich discovered Kolyma, where he and his associates founded the city of Srednekolymsk. A year later, Semyon Dezhnev continued his expedition, walked along the Bering Strait (which did not yet have this name) and discovered the easternmost point of the continent, later called Cape Dezhnev. An island, a peninsula, a bay, and a village also bear his name.

Semyon Dezhnev

In 1648, Dezhnev hit the road again. His ship was wrecked in the waters located in the southern part of the Anadyr River. Having arrived on skis, the sailors went up the river and stayed there for the winter. Subsequently this place appeared on geographical maps and received the name Anadyrsky fort. As a result of the expedition, the traveler was able to make detailed descriptions and draw up a map of those places.

Vitus Jonassen Bering, who organized expeditions to Kamchatka

Two Kamchatka expeditions inscribed the names of Vitus Bering and his associate Alexei Chirikov into the history of marine discoveries. During the first voyage, the navigators conducted research and were able to supplement the geographical atlas with objects located in Northeast Asia and on the Pacific coast of Kamchatka.

The discovery of the Kamchatka and Ozerny peninsulas, the Kamchatka, Krest, Karaginsky bays, Provedeniya Bay, and St. Lawrence Island is also the merit of Bering and Chirikov. At the same time, another strait was found and described, which later became known as the Bering Strait.

Vitus Bering

The second expedition was undertaken by them with the aim of finding a way to North America and studying Pacific Islands. On this journey, Bering and Chirikov founded the Peter and Paul fort. It took its name from the combined names of their ships (“St. Peter” and “St. Paul”) and subsequently became the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.

On the approach to the shores of America, the ships of like-minded people lost sight of each other, due to heavy fog. "St. Peter", controlled by Bering, sailed to the west coast of America, but was caught in a severe storm on the way back - the ship was thrown onto an island. The last minutes of Vitus Bering’s life passed on it, and the island subsequently began to bear his name. Chirikov also reached America on his ship, but completed his voyage safely, having discovered way back several islands of the Aleutian chain.

Khariton and Dmitry Laptev and their “name” sea

Cousins ​​Khariton and Dmitry Laptev were like-minded people and assistants to Vitus Bering. It was he who appointed Dmitry as commander of the ship “Irkutsk”, and his double boat “Yakutsk” was led by Khariton. They took part in the Great Northern Expedition, the purpose of which was to study, accurately describe and map the Russian shores of the ocean, from the Yugorsky Shar to Kamchatka.

Each of the brothers made a significant contribution to the development of new territories. Dmitry became the first navigator to take photographs of the coast from the mouth of the Lena to the mouth of the Kolyma. He compiled detailed maps these places, using mathematical calculations and astronomical data as a basis.

Khariton and Dmitry Laptev

Khariton Laptev and his associates conducted research on the northernmost section of the Siberian coast. It was he who determined the dimensions and outlines of the huge Taimyr Peninsula - he carried out surveys of its eastern coast, and was able to identify the exact coordinates of the coastal islands. The expedition took place in difficult conditions - a large number of ice, snowstorms, scurvy, ice captivity - Khariton Laptev’s team had to endure a lot. But they continued the work they had started. On this expedition, Laptev's assistant Chelyuskin discovered a cape, which was later named in his honor.

Noting the great contribution of the Laptevs to the development of new territories, members of the Russian Geographical Society decided to name one of the largest seas in the Arctic after them. Also, the strait between the mainland and Bolshoy Lyakhovsky Island is named in honor of Dmitry, and Khariton is named after West Coast Taimyr Islands.

Krusenstern and Lisyansky - organizers of the first Russian circumnavigation

Ivan Kruzenshtern and Yuri Lisyansky are the first Russian navigators to complete trip around the world. Their expedition lasted three years (began in 1803 and ended in 1806). They and their teams set off on two ships, which were named “Nadezhda” and “Neva”. The travelers passed through Atlantic Ocean, entered the waters Pacific Ocean. The sailors used them to reach the Kuril Islands, Kamchatka and Sakhalin.

Ivan KruzenshternThis trip made it possible to collect important information. Based on the data obtained by the sailors, a detailed map of the Pacific Ocean was compiled. Another important result of the first Russian round-the-world expedition was the data obtained about the flora and fauna of the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka, local residents, their customs and cultural traditions.

During their journey, the sailors crossed the equator and, according to maritime traditions, could not leave this event without a well-known ritual - a sailor dressed as Neptune greeted Krusenstern and asked why his ship had arrived where he had never been Russian flag. To which I received the answer that they are here solely for the glory and development of domestic science.

Vasily Golovnin - the first navigator who was rescued from Japanese captivity

Russian navigator Vasily Golovnin led two expeditions around the world. In 1806, he, being in the rank of lieutenant, received a new appointment and became commander of the sloop "Diana". Interestingly, this is the only case in the history of the Russian fleet when a lieutenant was entrusted with the control of a ship.

The leadership set the goal of the round-the-world expedition to study the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, with special attention to that part of it that is located within the borders of their native country. Diana's path was not easy. The sloop passed the island of Tristan da Cunha, passed the Cape of Hope and entered a port owned by the British. Here the ship was detained by the authorities. The British informed Golovnin about the outbreak of war between the two countries. The Russian ship was not declared captured, but the crew was not allowed to leave the bay. After spending more than a year in this situation, in mid-May 1809, the Diana, led by Golovnin, tried to escape, which the sailors successfully succeeded in - the ship arrived in Kamchatka.

Vasily Golovin Golovnin received his next important task in 1811 - he was supposed to compile descriptions of the Shantar and Kuril Islands, the shores of the Tatar Strait. During his journey, he was accused of not adhering to the principles of sakoku and was captured by the Japanese for more than 2 years. It was possible to rescue the team from captivity only thanks to good relationship one of the Russian naval officers and an influential Japanese merchant who was able to convince his government of the harmless intentions of the Russians. It is worth noting that before this, no one in history had ever returned from Japanese captivity.

In 1817-1819, Vasily Mikhailovich made another trip around the world on the Kamchatka ship, specially built for this purpose.

Thaddeus Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev - discoverers of Antarctica

Captain of the second rank Thaddeus Bellingshausen was determined to find the truth in the question of the existence of the sixth continent. In 1819, he went out to the open sea, carefully preparing two sloops - Mirny and Vostok. The latter was commanded by his like-minded friend Mikhail Lazarev. The first round-the-world Antarctic expedition set itself other tasks. In addition to finding irrefutable facts confirming or refuting the existence of Antarctica, the travelers planned to explore the waters of three oceans - the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian.

Thaddeus Bellingshausen The results of this expedition exceeded all expectations. During the 751 days that it lasted, Bellingshausen and Lazarev were able to make several significant geographical discoveries. Of course, the most important of them is the existence of Antarctica, this historical event occurred on January 28, 1820. Also, during the trip, about two dozen islands were found and mapped, sketches of Antarctic views, and images of representatives of the Antarctic fauna were created.

Mikhail Lazarev

Interestingly, attempts to discover Antarctica were made more than once, but none of them were successful. European navigators believed that either it did not exist, or it was located in places that were simply impossible to reach by sea. But the Russian travelers had enough perseverance and determination, so the names of Bellingshausen and Lazarev were included in the lists greatest navigators peace.

Yakov Sannikov

Yakov Sannikov (circa 1780, Ust-Yansk, Russian Empire - after 1811) - Russian merchant from Yakutsk, miner of arctic fox, mammoth tusks and explorer of the New Siberian Islands.
Known as the discoverer of the ghost island “Sannikov Land”, which he saw from the New Siberian Islands. He discovered and described the islands of Stolbovaya (1800) and Faddeevsky (1805).
In 1808-1810 he participated in the expedition of the exiled Riga Swede M. M. Gedenstrom. In 1810 he crossed the island of New Siberia, in 1811 he walked around Faddeevsky Island.
Sannikov expressed the opinion of the existence of a vast land north of the New Siberian Islands, in particular from Kotelny Island, called “Sannikov Land”.

After 1811, traces of Yakov Sannikov were lost. Neither his further occupation nor the year of death are known. In 1935, pilot Gratsiansky, who was flying in the lower reaches of the Lena River, near Kyusyur, discovered a tombstone with the inscription “Yakov Sannikov.” The strait through which today a section of the Northern Sea Route passes is named in his honor. Opened in 1773 by the Yakut industrialist Ivan Lyakhov. Initially, the strait was named after the expedition doctor E.V. Tolya V.N. Katina-Yartseva F.A. Mathisen. The current name was given by K.A. Vollosovich on his map, and in 1935 approved by the government of the USSR.

Grigory Shelikhov

Grigory Ivanovich Shelikhov (Shelekhov; 1747, Rylsk - July 20, 1795, Irkutsk) - Russian explorer, navigator, industrialist and merchant from the Shelekhov family, who since 1775 has been involved in the development of commercial trade shipping between the Kuril and Aleutian island ranges. In 1783-1786 he led an expedition to Russian America, during which the first Russian settlements in North America were founded. He organized several trading and fishing companies, including in Kamchatka. Grigory Ivanovich developed new lands for the Russian Empire and was the initiator of the Russian-American Company. Founder of the North-Eastern Company.

The bay was named in his honor. Shelikhov Bay (Kamchatka region, Russia) is located between the Asian coast and the base of the Kamchatka Peninsula. Belongs to the waters of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.

Ferdinand Wrangel

Wrangel showed himself to be at his best, and he, tested in a difficult circumnavigation, was entrusted with leading an expedition to the extreme northeast of Siberia, to the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma, in order to map the coast of the Arctic Ocean up to the Bering Strait, and in addition to test the hypothesis about the existence of an undiscovered land connecting Asia with America.
Wrangel spent three years in the ice and tundra with his companions, among whom his main assistant was Fyodor Matyushkin, a lyceum friend of A.S. Pushkin.
In between campaigns to the North, under the leadership of Wrangel and Matyushkin, a topographical survey of the huge coast was made, covering 35 degrees in longitude. In the territory of the recent white spot, 115 astronomical points were identified. For the first time, studies were carried out on the influence of climate on the existence and development of sea ​​ice, and in Nizhnekolymsk the first weather station in this region was organized. Thanks to meteorological observations from this station, it was established that the “pole of cold” of the Northern Hemisphere is located between the Yana and Kolyma rivers.
Ferdinand Wrangel described the expedition and its scientific results in detail in a book that was first published in 1839 and was a huge success. The famous Swedish polar explorer Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld called it “one of the masterpieces among the works on the Arctic.”

The expedition in the Chukotka-Kolyma region put Wrangel on a par with the largest explorers of the harsh Arctic. Having subsequently become one of the founders of the Russian Geographical Society, he thought through the project of an expedition to the North Pole. He proposes to go to the Pole on a ship that should spend the winter near north coast Greenland, in the fall, prepare food warehouses along the route of the polar party, and in March people go out exactly in the direction of the meridian on ten sledges with dogs. It is interesting that the plan for reaching the pole, drawn up by Robert Peary, who entered the pole 64 years later, repeated Wrangel’s old project in the smallest detail. An island in the Arctic Ocean, a mountain and a cape in Alaska are named after Wrangel. Having learned about the sale of Alaska by the Russian government in 1867, Ferdinand Petrovich reacted very negatively to this.

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In the 19th century, Russian explorers made a number of outstanding geographical discoveries. In 1803 I. Kruzenshtern on the Nadezhda and Neva completed the 1st Russian round-the-world expedition, exploring the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Sakhalin, Alaska, and the Aleutian Islands. Yu. Lisyanakiy on the Neva opened one of Hawaiian Islands. In 1819-21 F. Bellingshausen and M. Lazarev on the sloops “Vostok” and “Mirny” made the 2nd Arctic expedition. During its 16.1.1820 ships approached Antarctica, which Bellingshausen called the “ice continent.” After resting in Australia, the expedition moved to the tropical part of the Pacific Ocean and discovered islands in the Tuamotu archipelago. They were named in honor of Kutuzov, Lazarev, Raevsky, Barclay de Tolly, Ermolov and others. After resting in Sydney, the ships returned to Antarctica and discovered about. Peter I and the land of Alexander I. In July 1821, the ships returned to Kronstadt, bringing a huge amount of materials and collections. The development of Russian America is associated with the name of A. Baranov. A merchant from Kargopol had been trading in Alaska since 1790. He compiled detailed maps of Alaska and nearby islands. In 1799 Baranov became the ruler of the colonies in America. In 1804 He founded Novoarkhangelsk. Baranov tried to annex Hawaii to Russia, but failed. Despite his illness, he remained at his post until his death. The territory of the Far East remained a blank spot on the Russian map. In 1848, Nicholas 1 sent the expedition of G. Nevelskoy to the Far East. He proved that Sakhalin is an island and explored the lower reaches of the Amur. E. Putyatin during the round-the-world expedition of 1822-25. discovered the Rimsky-Korsakov Islands and concluded an agreement with Japan. Expeditions around the world were made by V. Golovin-1807-11, F. Litke-1826-29 and compiled 50 cards. I. Voznesensky described Alaska, the Aleutian and Kuril Islands in 1839-40. In 1809 A. Kolodkin began studying the Caspian Sea. In 1848, E. Hoffman and M. Kowalski explored the North. Ural. In 1845, the Russian Geographical Society was created.

Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century made a number of outstanding discoveries that became the property of not only Russian, but also foreign and world science. In addition, they made a significant contribution to the development of domestic knowledge and did a lot to contribute to the training of new personnel for the development of marine research.

Prerequisites

Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century made their discoveries largely because this century saw the need to search for new trade routes and opportunities to support Russia’s connections with other countries. At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, our country finally strengthened its status in the international arena as a world power. Naturally, this new position expanded its geopolitical space, which required new exploration of the seas, islands and ocean coasts for the construction of ports, ships and the development of trade with foreign countries.

Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century emerged as talented navigators just at the same time when our country achieved access to two seas: the Baltic and the Black. And this is no coincidence. This opened up new prospects for maritime research and gave impetus to the construction and development of fleets and maritime affairs in general. Therefore, it is not surprising that already in the first decades of the century under review, Russian discoverers and travelers of the 19th century carried out a number of outstanding studies that significantly enriched Russian geographical science.

Plan for a round-the-world expedition

Such a project became possible largely thanks to the successful military actions of our country at the end of the 18th century. At this time, Russia received the opportunity to build its fleet on the Black Sea, which, of course, was supposed to stimulate maritime affairs. Russian navigators at this time were seriously thinking about creating convenient trade routes. This was further facilitated by the fact that our country owned the territory North America Alaska. It was also necessary to maintain constant contacts with her and develop economic cooperation.

I.F. At the end of the 18th century, Kruzenshtern presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. However, he was rejected then. But just a few years later, after the accession of Alexander I, the Russian government showed interest in the presented plan. He received approval.

Preparation

I.F. Krusenstern came from a noble family. He studied at the Kronstadt Naval Corps and, as its student, took part in the war against Sweden, showing himself well then. After this, he was sent for an internship to England, where he received an excellent education. Upon returning to Russia, he presented a plan for a round-the-world expedition. Having received approval, he carefully prepared for it, purchased the best instruments and equipped the ships.

His closest assistant in this matter was his comrade Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky. He became friends with him in the cadet corps. The friend also proved himself to be a talented naval officer during the Russian-Swedish War of 1788-1790. Soon two ships named “Neva” and “Nadezhda” were equipped. The latter was led by Count Nikolai Rezanov, who became famous thanks to the famous rock opera. The expedition set sail in 1803. Its goal was to explore and explore the possibility of opening new trade routes from Russia to China and the coast of North American territory.

Swimming

Russian sailors rounded Cape Horn and, entering the Pacific Ocean, separated. Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky led his ship to the North American shores, where he recaptured the Russian trading city of Novo-Arkhangelsk, captured by the Indians. During this voyage he also sailed a sailing ship around South Africa for the first time in the history of navigation.

The ship "Nadezhda" under the leadership of Kruzenshtern set off for the Sea of ​​Japan. The merit of this researcher is that he carefully examined the shores of Sakhalin Island and made significant changes to the map. The main thing was to investigate what the management had long been interested in Pacific Fleet. Kruzenshtern entered the Amur Estuary, after which, having explored the shores of Kamchatka, he returned to his homeland.

Krusenstern's contribution to science

Russian travelers significantly advanced Russian geographical science, bringing it to the world level of development. attracted the attention of the general public. After the end of the trip, both wrote books that presented the results of their research. Kruzenshtern published “A Journey Around the World,” but the atlas he published with hydrographic applications is of particular importance. He filled in many blank spots on the map and conducted valuable research on the seas and oceans. So, he studied water pressure and temperature, sea currents, ebbs and flows.

Social activity

His further career was closely connected with the naval corps, where he was first assigned as an inspector. Subsequently, he began teaching there, and then headed it altogether. On his initiative, the Higher Officer Classes were created. Later they were transformed into the Maritime Academy. Kruzenshtern introduced new disciplines in educational process. This has significantly improved the quality of maritime teaching.

In addition, he helped in organizing other expeditions, in particular, he contributed to the plans of another prominent explorer O. Kotzebue. Kruzenshtern took part in the creation of the famous Russian Geographical Society, which was destined to occupy one of the leading places not only in Russian, but also in world science. The “Atlas of the South Sea” he published was of particular importance for the development of geography.

Preparation of a new expedition

Several years after his trip, Kruzenshtern insisted on a thorough study of the southern latitudes. He proposed equipping two expeditions to the North and South Poles, two ships each. Before this, the navigator came almost close to Antarctica, but ice prevented him from going further. Then he assumed that the sixth continent either did not exist or was impossible to get to.

In 1819, the Russian leadership decided to equip a new squadron for sailing. Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen, after a number of delays, was appointed its leader. It was decided to build two ships: Mirny and Vostok. The first one was designed according to the plan of Russian scientists. It was durable and waterproof. However, the second one, built in Great Britain, was less stable, so it had to be rebuilt, rebuilt and repaired more than once. The preparation and construction was supervised by Mikhail Lazarev, who complained about such a discrepancy between the two ships.

Journey to the South

A new expedition set off in 1819. She reached Brazil and, rounding the mainland, reached the Sandwich Islands. In January 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the sixth continent - Antarctica. During maneuvers around it, many islands were discovered and described. Among the most significant discoveries are the island of Peter I, the coast of Alexander I. Having made the necessary description of the shores, as well as sketches of animals seen on the new continent, Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen sailed back.

During the expedition, in addition to the discovery of Antarctica, other discoveries were made. For example, participants discovered that Sandwich Land is an entire archipelago. In addition, the island of South Georgia was described. Descriptions of the new continent are of particular importance. From his ship, Mikhail Lazarev had the opportunity to better observe the earth, so his conclusions are of particular value for science.

The meaning of discoveries

The expedition of 1819-1821 was of great importance for domestic and world geographical science. The discovery of a new, sixth continent changed the understanding of the geography of the Earth. Both travelers published the results of their research in two volumes with an atlas and necessary instructions. During the trip, about thirty islands were described, magnificent sketches of the views of Antarctica and its fauna were made. In addition, the expedition participants collected a unique ethnographic collection, which is stored at Kazan University.

Further activities

Bellingshausen subsequently continued his naval career. He took part in the Russian-Turkish War of 1828-1829, commanded the Baltic Fleet, and then was appointed governor of Kronstadt. An indicator of recognition of his merits is the fact that a number of geographical objects are named after him. First of all, the sea in the Pacific Ocean should be mentioned.

Lazarev also distinguished himself after his famous journey to Antarctica. He was appointed commander of an expedition to protect the shores of Russian America from smugglers, which he successfully accomplished. Subsequently, he commanded the Black Sea Fleet and participated in it, for which he received several awards. So, the great discoverers from Russia also made their outstanding contribution to the development of geography.

Russia was becoming a great maritime power, and this posed new challenges for domestic geographers.
In 1803-1806. The first Russian round-the-world expedition was undertaken from Kronstadt to Kamchatka and Alaska. It was headed by Admiral Ivan Fedorovich Krusenstern (1770-1846). He commanded the ship "Nadezhda". The ship "Neva" was commanded by captain Yuri Fedorovich Lisyansky (1773-1837). During the expedition, the islands of the Pacific Ocean, China, Japan, Sakhalin and Kamchatka were studied. Detailed maps of the explored places were compiled. Lisyansky, having independently made the transition from the Hawaiian Islands to Alaska, collected rich material about the peoples of Oceania and North America.
The attention of researchers around the world has long been attracted by the mysterious region around the South Pole. It was assumed that there was a vast Southern mainland. English navigator J. Cook in the 70s of the 18th century. crossed the Antarctic Circle, encountered impassable ice and declared that sailing further south was impossible. Since then, no south polar expeditions have been undertaken for a very long time.

In 1819, Russia equipped an expedition on two sloops to the southern polar seas under the leadership of Thaddeus Faddeevich Bellingshausen (1778-1852). He commanded the sloop Vostok. The commander of Mirny was Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev (1788-1851). Bellingshausen was an experienced explorer and participated in Krusenstern's voyage. Lazarev subsequently became famous as a combat admiral, who trained a whole galaxy of naval commanders (Kornilov, Nakhimov, Istomin).
The expedition crossed the Antarctic Circle several times, and in January 1820 it saw the ice coast for the first time. Approaching it in the area of ​​the modern Bellingshausen ice shelf, the travelers concluded that in front of them was an “ice continent.” Then the island of Peter I and the coast of Alexander I were discovered. In 1821, the expedition returned to its homeland, having made the discovery of Antarctica and a complete voyage around it in small sailing ships, poorly adapted to polar conditions.
In 1811, Russian sailors led by captain Vasily Mikhailovich Golovkin (1776-1831) examined Kurile Islands and were taken into Japanese captivity. Golovkin’s notes about his three-year stay in Japan introduced Russian society to the life of this mysterious country. Golovnin's student, Fyodor Petrovich Litke (1797-1882) explored the Northern Arctic Ocean, the shores of Kamchatka and America. He founded the Russian Geographical Society, which played a major role in the development of geographical science.
Large geographical discoveries in the Russian Far East are associated with the name of Gennady Ivanovich Nevelsky (1813-1876). In 1848-1849 he sailed around Cape Horn to Kamchatka, and then led the Amur expedition. He discovered the mouth of the Amur, the strait between Sakhalin and the mainland and proved that Sakhalin is an island, not a peninsula.
The expeditions of Russian travelers, in addition to purely scientific results, were of great importance in the matter of mutual knowledge of peoples. In distant lands local residents They often learned about Russia for the first time from Russian travelers. In turn, Russian people were enriched with knowledge about other countries and peoples.